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| Preface | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Confocal and Interferometric Microscopy | |
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| The Standard Optical Microscope | |
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| Principle of Operation | |
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| The Point Spread Function | |
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| Coherent and Incoherent Illumination | |
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| The Coherent Transfer Function, Line Spread Function, and Spatial Frequencies | |
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| The Optical Transfer Function | |
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| The Rayleigh and Sparrow Two-Point Definitions | |
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| Brightness of the Image | |
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| Imaging Techniques with the Standard Optical Microscope | |
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| The Confocal Microscope | |
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| Principle of Operation | |
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| Scanning | |
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| Depth Response | |
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| The Point Spread Function and Two-Point Resolution | |
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| History of the CSOM | |
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| Optical Interference Microscopes | |
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| Principle of Operation | |
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| Signal Processing Techniques | |
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| Depth and Transverse Resolution | |
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| Comparison of Scanning Optical Microscopes with Other Types of Scanning Microscopes | |
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| References | |
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| Instruments | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Confocal Scanning Laser Microscope | |
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| The Illumination Source | |
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| The Objective Lens | |
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| The Scanning Stage | |
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| The Intermediate Optics | |
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| The Pinhole | |
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| The Detector and Electronics | |
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| Beam Scanning Techniques | |
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| Commercial Examples | |
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| Fiber-Optic Scanning Microscopes | |
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| Nipkow Disk Scanning Microscopes | |
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| One-Sided and Two-Sided Designs | |
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| The Nipkow Disk | |
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| Illumination of the Disk | |
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| The Tilted Disk and Optical Isolator | |
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| The Field Lens, Tube Lens, and Objective Lens | |
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| The Imaging Path | |
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| Commercial Examples | |
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| Slit Microscopes | |
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| Ophthalmologic Slit Microscopes | |
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| Bilateral Scanning Slit Microscopes | |
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| Hybrid Slit Microscopes | |
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| Confocal Transmission Microscopes | |
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| Alternative Imaging Configurations | |
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| Interference Microscopes | |
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| Interference CSOMs | |
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| The Michelson Interference Microscope | |
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| The Linnik Interference Microscope | |
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| The Mirau Interference Microscope | |
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| The Tolanski Interference Microscope | |
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| Near-Field Microscopy | |
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| The Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscope | |
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| Applications of the NSOM | |
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| The Solid Immersion Microscope | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| Depth and Transverse Resolution | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Depth Response of the Confocal Microscope with Infinitesimal Pinholes and Slits | |
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| Scalar Theory for a Plane Reflector | |
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| Scalar Theory for Depth Response of a Point Reflector | |
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| Scalar Theory for Fluorescent Reflectors | |
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| Scalar Theory for Confocal Slit Microscopes | |
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| The Effect of Sample and Lens Aberrations on the Depth Response | |
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| Depth Response of the Confocal Microscope with Finite-Sized Pinholes | |
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| Approximate Theory for Optimum Pinhole Size | |
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| Approximate Theory for the Range Resolution vs. Pinhole Size | |
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| Exact Theory for the Range Resolution vs. Pinhole Size | |
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| Transverse Response of the Confocal Microscope | |
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| Transverse Response for Infinitesimal Pinholes | |
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| Two-Point Resolution | |
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| Edge and Line Response | |
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| The Effect of Finite Pinhole Size on the Transverse Resolution | |
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| Depth and Transverse Resolution of the Interferometric Microscope | |
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| Scalar Theory for the Depth Response with a Plane Reflector | |
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| Transverse Resolution | |
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| The Effect of the Thin-Film Beamsplitter and Mirror Support of the MCM on Signal Levels, Range, and Transverse Resolution | |
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| The Near-Field Scanning Optical Microscope (NSOM) | |
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| Attenuation in a Tapered Rod or Fiber | |
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| The Fields outside the Pinhole | |
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| The Solid Immersion Microscope (SIM) | |
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| The Transverse and Longitudinal Magnifications of the SIL | |
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| The Depth Response of the SIM | |
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| The Transverse Response of the SIM | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| Phase Imaging | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Phase-Contrast Imaging in Conventional Microscopes | |
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| Phase-Contrast Imaging in the CSOM | |
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| Phase Imaging with an Interferometer | |
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| Electro-optic Phase Imaging | |
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| The ac Zernike Technique | |
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| Acousto-optic Phase Imaging | |
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| Differential Interference Contrast Imaging | |
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| The Basic Theory of Nomarski Imaging | |
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| Imaging Modes of a DIC Microscope | |
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| Polarization-Shifted DIC Imaging | |
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| Split Detector DIC Imaging | |
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| Differential Probe Beam DIC Imaging | |
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| Differential Imaging with an AO Modulator | |
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| Differential Imaging with an Optical Fiber CSOM | |
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| Phase Imaging with an Interference Microscope | |
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| The Integrating Bucket Technique | |
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| The Fourier Transform Technique | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| Applications | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Semiconductor Metrology | |
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| Microlithography Measurements | |
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| Precision, Linearity, and Accuracy in Semiconductor Metrology | |
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| Critical Dimension Measurements | |
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| Experimental Results | |
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| Polarization-Enhanced Imaging of Dense Arrays | |
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| Calibration | |
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| Overlay Misregistration Measurements | |
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| Film Thickness Measurements | |
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| CARIS and VAMFO | |
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| Film Thickness Measurements with the Mirau Interference Microscope | |
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| Biological Imaging | |
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| Brightfield and Phase Imaging | |
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| Fluorescence Imaging | |
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| Two-Wavelength and Two-Photon Fluorescence Imaging | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| Vector Field Theory for Depth and Transverse Resolution of a CSOM | |
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| The Depth Response | |
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| Transverse Response | |
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| References | |
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| Index | |