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Introduction | |
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Surveying | |
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Geomatics | |
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Famous Surveyors | |
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Early History of Surveying | |
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Plane Surveys | |
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Geodetic Surveys | |
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Types of Surveys | |
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Modern Surveying Equipment | |
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Use of Old Surveying Equipment | |
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Maintenance of Equipment | |
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Importance of Surveying | |
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Safety | |
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Liability Insurance | |
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Opportunities in Surveying | |
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Introduction to Measurements | |
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Measurement | |
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Necessity for Accurate Surveys | |
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Accuracy and Precision | |
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Errors and Mistakes | |
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Sources of Errors | |
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Systematic and Accidental or Random Errors | |
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Discussion of Accidental or Random Errors | |
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Occurrence of Accidental or Random Errors | |
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Probability Curve | |
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Propagation of Accidental or Random Errors | |
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Significant Figures | |
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Field Notes | |
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Electronically Recorded Notes | |
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Office Work and Digital Computers | |
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Planning | |
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Distance Measurement | |
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Introduction | |
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Pacing | |
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Odometers and Measuring Wheels | |
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Tachymetry | |
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Taping or Chaining | |
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Electronic Distance Measurements | |
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Global Positioning System | |
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Summary of Measurement Methods | |
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Equipment Required for Taping | |
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Taping Over Level Ground | |
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Taping Along Sloping Ground or Over Underbrush | |
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Review of Some Trigonometry | |
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Distance Corrections | |
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Introduction | |
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Types of Corrections | |
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Incorrect Tape Length or Standardization Error | |
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Temperature Variations | |
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Slope Corrections | |
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Sag and Tension Corrections | |
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Combined Taping Corrections | |
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Common Mistakes Made In Taping | |
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Errors In Taping | |
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Magnitude of Errors | |
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Suggestions for Good Taping | |
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Taping Precision | |
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Electronic Distance Measuring Instruments (EDMs) | |
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Introduction | |
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Basic Terms | |
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Types of EDMs | |
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Phase Shift EDMs | |
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Timed Pulse EDMs | |
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Setting Up, Leveling, and Centering EDMs | |
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Necessary Steps for Measuring Distances with EDMs | |
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Errors in EDM Measurements | |
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Calibration of EDM Equipment | |
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Accuracies of EDMs | |
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Computation of Horizontal Distances from Slope Distances | |
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Training of Personnel | |
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Summary of Comments on EDMs | |
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Introduction to Leveling | |
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Importance of Leveling | |
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Basic Definitions | |
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Reference Elevations or Datums | |
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First-, Second-, and Third-Order Surveys | |
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Methods of Leveling | |
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The Level | |
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Types of Levels | |
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Level Rods | |
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Setting up the Level | |
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Sensitivity of Bubble Tubes | |
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Care of Equipment | |
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Differential Leveling | |
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Theory of Spirit Leveling | |
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Definitions | |
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Differential Leveling Described | |
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Earth's Curvature and Atmospheric Refraction | |
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Verniers | |
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Level Rod Targets | |
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Common Leveling Mistakes | |
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Leveling Errors | |
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Suggestions for Good Leveling | |
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Comments On Telescope Readings | |
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Precision of Differential Leveling | |
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Hand Signals | |
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Leveling, Continued | |
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Adjustments of Level Circuits | |
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Precise Leveling | |
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Profile Leveling | |
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Profiles | |
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Cross Sections | |
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Nonclosed Leveling Routes | |
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Angles and Directions | |
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Meridians | |
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Units for Measuring Angles | |
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Azimuths | |
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Bearings | |
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The Compass | |
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Variations In Magnetic Declination | |
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Direction Arrow Convention | |
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Local Attraction | |
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Reading Bearings With a Compass | |
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Detecting Local Attraction | |
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Traverse Angle Definitions | |
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Traverse Computations | |
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Magnetic Declination Problems | |
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Measuring Angle and Directions With Total Stations | |
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Transits and Theodolites (Obsolete) | |
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Introduction to Total Stations | |
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Types of Total Stations | |
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Disadvantages of Total Stations | |
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Advantages of Total Stations | |
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Parts of Total Stations | |
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Surveying With Total Stations | |
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Setting Up the Total Station | |
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Sighting the Instrument | |
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Measuring Horizontal Angles | |
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Closing the Horizon | |
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Measuring Angles By Repetition | |
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Direction Method for Measuring Horizontal Angles | |
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Measuring Zenith Angles | |
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Use of Data Collectors With Total Stations | |
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Care of Instruments | |
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Miscellaneous Angle Discussion | |
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Common Errors In Angle Measurement | |
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Common Mistakes In Measuring Angles | |
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Angle-Distance Relationships | |
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Traversing | |
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Older Methods of Traversing | |
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Modern Traversing With Total Stations | |
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Intersection of Two Lines | |
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Measuring An Angle Where The Instrument Cannot Be Set Up | |
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Prolonging a Straight Line By Double Centering | |
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Establishing Points On a Straight Line Between Two Given Points | |
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Cleaning Surveying Equipment | |
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Traverse Adjustment and Area Computation | |
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Introduction | |
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Computations | |
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Methods of Calculating Areas | |
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Traverse Adjustment Overview | |
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Balancing Angles | |
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Latitudes and Departures | |
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Error of Closure | |
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Balancing Latitudes and Departures | |
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Double Meridian Distances | |
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Double Parallel Distances | |
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Rectangular Coordinates | |
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Areas Computed By Coordinates | |
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Alternative Coordinate Method | |
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Areas Within Irregular Boundaries | |
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Computer Calculations and Omitted Measurements | |
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Computers | |
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Programs | |
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Application of the Computer Program SURVEY | |
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Computer Example | |
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A Potential Warning: Danger In Computer Use | |
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Omitted Measurements | |
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Length and Bearing Of One Side Missing | |
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Using Survey to Determine the Length and Bearing of a Missing Side | |
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Example Radiation Problem | |
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Computer Solution for Radiation Problem | |
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Resection | |
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Topographic Surveying | |
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Introduction | |
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Contours | |
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Plotting of Topographic Maps | |
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Summary of Contour Characteristics | |
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Map Symbols | |
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Completing the Map | |
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Specifications for Topographic Maps | |
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Methods of Obtaining Topography | |
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Transit-Stadia Method of Mapping | |
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Plane Table Surveys | |
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Topographic Details Obtained With Total Stations | |
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Selection of Points for Topographic Mapping | |
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Profiles From Contour Maps | |
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Checklist of Items to Be Included On a Topographic Map | |
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The Global Positioning System (GPS) | |
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Introduction | |
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Monitoring Stations | |
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Global Navigation Satellite System | |
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Uses of GPS | |
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Basic Theory | |
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How Can the Travel Time of a Satellite Signal Be Measured? | |
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Clock Bias | |
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GPS Errors | |
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Minimizing Errors Through Differential Correction | |
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Receivers | |
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HARN | |
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CORS | |
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OPUS | |
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WAAS | |
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GPS Signals | |
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GPS Field Applications | |
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Geoid and Ellipsoid | |
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Field Applications | |
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Static GPS Surveys | |
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Kinematic GPS | |
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Real-Time Kinematic Surveying | |
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Virtual Reference Station | |
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Dilution of Precision (DOP) | |
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Planning | |
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Example Problem | |
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Network Adjustment | |
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Carrier Phase GPS | |
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Geographic Information Systems (GIS) | |
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Introduction | |
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What? A Definition of Geographic Information Systems | |
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Who and Where? | |
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Why GIS? | |
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When? The Evolution of GIS | |
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Thematic Layering | |
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Levels of Use of a GIS | |
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Uses of Geographic Information Systems | |
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Objectives of a GIS | |
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Applications of a GIS | |
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GIS on the World Wide Web | |
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Accuracy in a GIS | |
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Control Surveying | |
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Legal Concerns With GIS | |
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GIS, Continued | |
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Essential Elements of a GIS | |
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Selected Data About Geographic Locations | |
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GIS Software | |
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GIS Hardware | |
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Sources of GIS Data | |
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Putting Data into the Computer | |
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Preprocessing Existing Data | |
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Data Management and Retrieval | |
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Manipulation and Analysis | |
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Product Generation | |
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Coordinates and Map Projections | |
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Raster GIS | |
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Conclusion to GIS Discussion | |
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Construction Surveying | |
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Introduction | |
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Work of the Construction Surveyor | |
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Trade Unions | |
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Property Survey from the Contractor's Viewpoint | |
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Preliminary Surveys | |
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Grade Stakes | |
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Referencing Points for Construction | |
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Building Layout | |
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Base Lines (Layout Performed By Surveyors) | |
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Radial Staking Methods | |
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Batter Boards | |
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Building Layout: Contractor Method | |
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As-Built Surveys | |
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Problems | |
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Volumes | |
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Introduction | |
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Slopes and Slope Stakes | |
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Borrow Pits | |
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Cross Sections | |
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Areas of Cross Sections | |
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Computation of Earthwork Volumes | |
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Mass Diagram | |
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Accounting for Shrinkage and Swell | |
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Volumes from Contour Maps | |
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Volume Formulas for Geometric Shapes | |
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Problems | |
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Land Surveying or Property Surveying | |
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Introduction | |
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Title Transfer and Land Records | |
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Common Lawntents 21-4 Monuments | |
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Blazing Trees | |
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The Land Surveyor: A Specialist | |
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Monuments, Bearings, Distances, and Areas | |
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Miscellaneous Terms Relating to Land Surveying | |
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Resurveys | |
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Metes and Bounds | |
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The U.S. Public Lands Survey System | |
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Early Days of the System | |
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Outline of the System | |
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Meander Lines | |
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Witness Corners | |
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Deed Descriptions of Land | |
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Problems | |
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Horizontal Curves | |
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Introduction | |
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Degree of Curvature and Radius of Curvature | |
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Curve Equations | |
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Deflection Angles | |
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Selection and Staking Out of Curves | |
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Computer Example | |
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Field Procedure for Staking Out Curves | |
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Circular Curves Using the SI System | |
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Horizontal Curves Passing Through Certain Points | |
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Spiral Curves | |
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Problems | |
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Vertical Curves | |
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Introduction | |
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Vertical Curve Calculations | |
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Miscellaneous Items Relating to Vertical Curves | |
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Unequal-Tangent Vertical Curves | |
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Vertical Curve Passing Through a Specified Point | |
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Parabolic Curve Equation | |
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Computer Example | |
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Roadway Crowns | |
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Roadway Superelevation | |
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Problems | |
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Surveying-the Profession | |
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Surveying Licenses | |
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Registration Requirements | |
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Penalties for Practicing Surveying Without a License | |
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Reasons for Becoming Registered | |
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A Profession | |
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Code of Ethics | |
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To Be Classed as a Professional | |
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Conclusion | |
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Problems | |
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Some Useful Addresses | |
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Baccalaureate Degree Programs in Surveying | |
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Some Useful Formulas | |