| |
| |
| List of Symbols | |
| |
| |
| Key to the different layers in integrated circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic principles of integrated circuits technology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Film technology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Film production processes | |
| |
| |
| |
| The CVD process | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal oxidation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Vapour phase deposition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sputtering | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spin coating | |
| |
| |
| |
| Film production by ion implantation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Film production using wafer-bonding and back-etching | |
| |
| |
| |
| Annealing techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| The monocrystalline silicon wafer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geometry and crystallography of silicon wafers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Doping of silicon wafers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Monocrystalline silicon growing techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Epitaxial layers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Uses for epitaxial layers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diffusion of doping atoms from the substrate into the epitaxial layer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal SiO<sub>2</sub> layers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Uses of thermal SiO<sub>2</sub> layers | |
| |
| |
| |
| The LOCOS technique | |
| |
| |
| |
| Properties of thin thermal SiO<sub>2</sub> films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Deposited SiO<sub>2</sub> films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Creating deposited SiO<sub>2</sub> films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Applications of deposited SiO<sub>2</sub> films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spacer technology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Trench isolation | |
| |
| |
| |
| SiO<sub>2</sub> isolation films for multi-level metallization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Phosphorus glass films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Producing phosphorus glass films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flow-glass | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal phosphorus glass | |
| |
| |
| |
| Silicon nitride films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Producing silicon nitride films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nitride films as an oxidation barrier | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nitride films as a capacitor dielectric | |
| |
| |
| |
| Using nitride films for passivation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Polysilicon films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Producing polysilicon films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Grain structure of polysilicon films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conductivity of polysilicon films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Uses of polysilicon films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Silicide films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Producing silicide Films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Polycide films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Silication of source/drain regions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Refractory metal films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aluminium films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Producing aluminium films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Crystal structure ofaluminium films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electromigration in aluminium interconnections | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aluminium-silicon contacts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aluminium-aluminium contacts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Organic films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spin-on glass films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Polyimide films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Linewidth dimension, placement errors and defects | |
| |
| |
| |
| Photolithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Photoresist films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Formation of photoresist patterns | |
| |
| |
| |
| Light intensity variation in the photoresist | |
| |
| |
| |
| Special photoresist techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optical exposure techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Resolution capability ofoptical exposure techniques . | |
| |
| |
| |
| Alignment accuracy of optical exposure equipment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Defects occurring in optical lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| X-ray lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wavelength region for X-ray lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| X-ray resists | |
| |
| |
| |
| X-ray sources | |
| |
| |
| |
| X-ray masks | |
| |
| |
| |
| Alignment procedure for X-ray lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Radiation damage in X-ray lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Opportunities for Y-ray lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electron lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electron resists | |
| |
| |
| |
| Resolution capability of electron lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electron beam pattern generators | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electron projection equipment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Alignment techniques in electron lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Radiation damage in electron lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ion lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ion resists | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ion beam writing | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ion beam projection | |
| |
| |
| |
| Resolution capability ofion lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pattern generation without using lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
| Etching technology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wet etching | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wet chemical etching | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical-mechanical polishing | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dry etching | |
| |
| |
| |
| Physical dry etching | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical dry etching | |
| |
| |
| |
| Physical-chemical dry etching | |
| |
| |
| |
| Chemical etching reactions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Etching gases | |
| |
| |
| |
| Process optimization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Endpoint detection | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dry etch processes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dry etching of silicon nitride | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dry etching of polysilicon | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dry etching ofmonocrystalline silicon | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dry etching ofmetal silicides and refractory metals | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dry etching of silicon dioxide | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dry etching ofaluminium | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dry etching ofpolymers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Doping technology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal doping | |
| |
| |
| |
| Doping by ion implantation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ion implantation machines | |
| |
| |
| |
| Implanted doping profiles | |
| |
| |
| |
| Activation and diffusion of dopant atoms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Activating implanted dopant atoms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Intrinsic diffusion of dopant atoms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diffusion for high concentrations of dopant atoms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Oxidation enhanced diffusion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diffusion of dopant atoms at interfaces | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diffusion of dopant atoms in films | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sheet resistance of doped layers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diffusion at the edge of doped regions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diffusion of non-doping materials | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cleaning technology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Contaminants and their effect | |
| |
| |
| |
| Clean rooms, clean materials and clean processes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Clean rooms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Clean materials | |
| |
| |
| |
| Clean processing | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wafer cleaning | |
| |
| |
| |
| Process integration | |
| |
| |
| |
| The various MOS and bipolar technologies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Active components in integrated circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparsion of MOS and bipolar technologies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Passive components in integrated circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Technology architecture | |
| |
| |
| |
| Architecture of MOS technology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Architecture of bipolar and BICMOS technologies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transistors in integrated circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Design of MOS transistors and their isolation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Design of DMOS transistors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Design of bipolar transistors and their isolation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Memory cells | |
| |
| |
| |
| Design of static memory cells | |
| |
| |
| |
| Design of dynamic memory cells | |
| |
| |
| |
| Design of non-volatile memory cells | |
| |
| |
| |
| Multilayer metallization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Planarization of surfaces in integrated circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Contacts in integrated circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Metallization in integrated ciruits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Passivation of integrated circuits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Detailed process sequence ofselected technologies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Digital CMOS process | |
| |
| |
| |
| BICMOS process | |
| |
| |
| |
| Microwave bipolar process | |
| |
| |
| |
| DRAM process | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Subject Index | |