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| Preface | |
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| Acknowledgements | |
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| About the Author | |
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| Chocolate production and consumption patterns | |
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| History of cocoa and chocolate | |
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| World production and consumption of cocoa and chocolate products | |
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| World production and consumption of cocoa | |
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| World cocoa prices | |
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| World consumption of chocolate products | |
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| World consumption of premium chocolate products | |
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| Fairtrade cocoa and chocolate in modern confectionery industry | |
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| Future of Fairtrade cocoa and confectionery industry | |
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| The concept of this book | |
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| Cocoa cultivation, bean composition and chocolate flavour precursor formation and character | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Cocoa cultivation and practices | |
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| Cultivation of cocoa | |
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| Flowering and pod development | |
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| Harvesting and pod opening | |
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| Cocoa diseases and pests and their influence on chocolate quality | |
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| Bean composition and flavour precursor formation | |
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| Chemical composition of the bean | |
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| Polyphenols and chocolate flavour quality | |
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| Effects of proteins and sugars on flavour precursor formation | |
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| Microbial succession and enzymatic activities during flavour precursor generation in cocoa fermentation | |
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| Effect of genotype on cocoa bean flavours | |
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| Flavour development during post-harvest treatments of cocoa | |
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| Fermentation processes | |
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| Drying | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Industrial chocolate manufacture processes and factors influencing quality | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Cocoa processing and technology | |
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| Bean selection and quality criteria | |
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| Cleaning, breaking and winnowing | |
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| Sterilisation | |
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| Alkalisation | |
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| Roasting | |
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| Nib grinding and liquor treatment | |
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| Liquor pressing | |
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| Cake grinding (kibbling) | |
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| Cocoa powder production | |
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| Chocolate manufacturing processes | |
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| Mixing | |
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| Refining | |
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| Conching | |
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| Tempering, lipid crystallisation and continuous phase character during chocolate manufacture | |
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| Particle size distribution in chocolate | |
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| Compositional effects on rheological and textural qualities in chocolate | |
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| The role of fats | |
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| The role of sugar | |
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| The role of milk and other dairy components | |
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| The role of surfactants in modern chocolate confectionery | |
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| Moisture and chocolate flow | |
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| Chocolate quality and defects | |
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| Chocolate quality | |
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| Chocolate defects | |
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| Conclusion and further research | |
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| The chemistry of flavour development during cocoa processing and chocolate manufacture | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Influence of bean selection on chocolate flavour quality | |
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| Effect of roasting | |
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| Maillard reactions aldol condensation, polymerisation and cyclisation | |
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| Effects of alkalisation | |
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| Flavour development during chocolate manufacture | |
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| Conching | |
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| Key flavour compounds in milk chocolate | |
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| Key flavour compounds in dark chocolate | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Sensory character and flavour perception of chocolates | |
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| Summary and industrial relevance | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Sensory perception of quality in chocolates | |
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| Appearance | |
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| Texture | |
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| Taste | |
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| Flavour and aroma | |
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| Sensory assessment of chocolates | |
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| Factor influencing chocolate flavour | |
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| Flavour release and perception of sweetness in chocolate | |
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| Dynamism of flavour perception in chocolate | |
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| Retronasal flavour release and perception during chocolate consumption | |
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| Measurement of flavour release and intensity in chocolates | |
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| Electronic noses and tongues as online sensors for sensory assessment of chocolates | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Nutritional and health benefits of cocoa and chocolate consumption | |
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| Summary and significance | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Chemistry and composition of cocoa flavonoids | |
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| Chocolate types and their major nutritional constituents | |
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| Antioxidant properties and their mechanism of action | |
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| Effects on endothelial function, blood pressure and cardiovascular system | |
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| Effects on insulin sensitivity and carcinogenic properties | |
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| Cocoa, chocolate and aphrodisiac properties | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Structure properties (rheology, texture and melting) relationships in chocolate manufacture | |
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| Summary and industrial relevance | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Materials and methods | |
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| Materials | |
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| Preparation of chocolate samples | |
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| Determination of particle size distribution | |
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| Rheological measurements | |
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| Tempering procedure | |
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| Texture measurements | |
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| Colour measurements of solid dark chocolate | |
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| Microstructure analysis | |
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| Determination of melting properties of dark chocolates | |
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| Experimental design and statistical analysis | |
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| Results and discussion | |
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| Particle size distribution of molten dark chocolate | |
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| Rheological properties of molten dark chocolate | |
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| Relationships between casson model and ICA recommendations | |
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| Textural properties | |
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| Molten dark chocolate | |
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| Hardness of tempered dark chocolate | |
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| Colour measurements | |
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| Relationships between textural properties and appearance of dark chocolate | |
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| Microstructural properties of molten dark chocolate | |
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| Melting properties of dark chocolate | |
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| Effects of particle size distribution | |
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| Effects of fat content | |
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| Effects of lecithin | |
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| Relationships between rheological, textural and melting properties of dark chocolate | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Tempering behaviour during chocolate manufacture: effects of varying product matrices | |
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| Summary and industrial relevance | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Materials and methods | |
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| Materials | |
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| Tempering procedure | |
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| Determination of particle size distribution | |
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| Experimental design and statistical analysis | |
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| Results and discussion | |
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| Particle size distribution of dark chocolates | |
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| Effect of particle size distribution on tempering behaviour | |
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| Effect of fat content on tempering behaviour | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Tempering and fat crystallisation effects on chocolate quality | |
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| Summary and industrial relevance | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Materials and methods | |
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| Materials | |
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| Determination of particle size distribution | |
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| Tempering experiment | |
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| Texture measurements | |
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| Colour and gloss measurements | |
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| Image acquisition and capture | |
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| Determination of melting properties | |
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| Microstructural determinations | |
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| Scanning electron microscopy | |
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| Experimental design and statistical analysis | |
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| Results and discussion | |
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| Particle size distribution of dark chocolates | |
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| Fat crystallisation behaviours during tempering of dark chocolate | |
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| Effect of temper regime and PSD on mechanical properties | |
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| Effect of temper regime and PSD on colour and gloss | |
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| Effect of temper regime and PSD on melting properties | |
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| Effect of temper regime on microstructure | |
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| Effect of temper regime on scanning electron microstructure | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Fat bloom formation and development in chocolates | |
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| Summary and industrial relevance | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Materials and methods | |
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| Materials | |
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| Determination of particle size distribution | |
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| Tempering experiment | |
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| Texture measurements | |
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| Surface colour and gloss measurements | |
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| Determination of melting properties | |
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| Microstructural determinations | |
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| Experimental design and statistical analysis | |
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| Results and discussion | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Matrix effects on flavour volatiles character and release in chocolates | |
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| Summary and industrial relevance | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Materials and methods | |
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| Materials | |
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| Tempering procedure | |
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| Determination of particle size distribution | |
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| Quantification of flavour volatiles by gas chromatography | |
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| Gas chromatography olfactometry analytical conditions | |
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| Experimental design and statistical analysis | |
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| Results and discussion | |
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| Particle size distribution of dark chocolates | |
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| Characterisation of flavour compounds in dark chocolates | |
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| Effects of particle size distribution on flavour volatile release | |
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| Effects of fat content on flavour volatile release | |
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| Relating flavour volatiles release to PSD and fat content: product spaces | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Conclusions and industrial applications | |
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| Conclusions: Structure properties relationships in chocolate manufacture | |
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| Conclusions: Tempering behaviour from response surface methodology | |
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| Conclusions: Effects of tempering and fat crystallisation on microstructure and physical properties | |
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| Conclusions: FAT bloom formation and development with undertempering | |
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| Conclusions: Flavour volatiles and matrix effects related to variations in PSD and FAT content | |
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| Industrial relevance and applications of research findings in this book | |
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| Recommendations for further research studies | |
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| References | |
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| Abbreviations used and their meanings | |
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| Abbreviations, acronyms and websites of organizations related to cocoa and chocolate industry | |
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| Glossary of chocolate terminologies | |
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| Index | |