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| Preface | |
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| Scope of Biological Control | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Types of Biological Control, Targets, and Agents | |
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| What is biological control? | |
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| Permanent control over large areas | |
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| Temporary pest suppression in production areas | |
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| Kinds of targets and kinds of agents | |
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| Kinds of Natural Enemies | |
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| Parasitoid Diversity and Ecology | |
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| What is a parasitoid? | |
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| Terms and processes | |
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| Some references to parasitoid families | |
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| Groups of parasitoids | |
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| Finding hosts | |
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| Host recognition and assessment | |
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| Defeating host defenses | |
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| Regulating host physiology | |
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| Patch-time allocation | |
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| Predator Diversity and Ecology | |
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| Non-insect predators | |
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| Major groups of predatory insects | |
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| Overview of predator biology | |
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| Predator foraging behavior | |
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| Predators and pest control | |
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| Effects of alternative foods on predator impact | |
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| Interference of generalist predators with classical biological control agents | |
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| Predator and prey defense strategies | |
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| Weed Biocontrol Agent Diversity and Ecology | |
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| The goal of weed biological control | |
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| Terms and processes | |
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| Herbivory and host finding | |
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| Herbivore guilds | |
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| Group of herbivores and plant pathogens | |
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| Arthropod Pathogen Diversity and Ecology | |
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| Bacterial pathogens of arthropods | |
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| Viral pathogens of arthropods | |
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| Fungal pathogens of arthropods | |
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| Nematodes attacking arthropods | |
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| Generalized arthropod pathogen life cycle | |
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| Epidemiology: what leads to disease outbreaks? | |
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| Invasions: Why Biological Control is Needed | |
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| The Invasion Crisis | |
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| Urgency of the invasion crisis | |
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| Case histories of four high-impact invaders | |
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| The extent of harmful impact by invaders | |
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| How do invasive species get to new places? | |
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| Why do some invasions succeed but others fail? | |
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| Invader ecology and impact | |
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| Ways to Suppress Invasive Species | |
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| Prevention: heading off new invasions through sound policy | |
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| Eradication based on early detection | |
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| Invaders that do no harm | |
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| Control of invasive pests in natural areas | |
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| Factors affecting control in natural areas | |
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| Control of invasive species in crops | |
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| Natural Enemy Introductions: Theory and Practice | |
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| Interaction Webs as the Conceptual Framework for Classical Biological Control | |
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| Terminology | |
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| Forces setting plant population density | |
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| Forces setting insect population density | |
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| Predictions about pests based on food webs | |
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| The Role of Population Ecology and Population Models in Biological Control, By Joseph Elkinton | |
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| Basic concepts | |
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| Population models | |
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| Classical Biological Control | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Classical biological control | |
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| New-association biological control | |
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| Summary | |
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| Weed Biological Control | |
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| Differences and similarities between weed and arthropod programs | |
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| Why plants become invasive | |
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| Selecting suitable targets for weed biological control | |
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| Conflicts of interest in weed biological control | |
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| Faunal inventories: finding potential weed biological control agents | |
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| Safety: "will those bugs eat my roses?" | |
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| Pre-release determination of efficacy | |
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| How many agents are necessary for weed control? | |
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| Release, establishment, and dispersal | |
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| Evaluation of impacts | |
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| Non-target impacts | |
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| When is a project successful? | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Tools for Classical Biological Control | |
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| Foreign Exploration | |
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| Planning and conducting foreign exploration | |
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| Shipping natural enemies | |
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| Operating a quarantine laboratory | |
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| Managing insect colonies in quarantine | |
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| Developing petitions for release into the environment | |
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| Climate Matching | |
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| Climate matching | |
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| Inductive modeling: predicting spread and incursion success | |
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| Deductive modeling: predicting spread and incursion success | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Molecular Tools, By Richard Stouthamer | |
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| Types of molecular data | |
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| Important biological control issues that molecular techniques can address | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Safety | |
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| Non-Target Impacts of Biological Control Agents | |
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| Biological control as an evolving technology | |
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| The amateur to early scientific period (1800-1920) | |
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| A developing science makes some mistakes (1920-70) | |
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| Broadening perspectives (1970-90) | |
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| Current practice and concerns | |
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| "Re-greening" biological control | |
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| Predicting Natural Enemy Host Ranges | |
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| Literature records | |
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| Surveys in the native range | |
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| Laboratory testing to estimate host ranges | |
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| Interpretation of tests | |
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| Examples of host-range estimation | |
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| Risk assessment | |
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| Avoiding Indirect Non-Target Impacts | |
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| Kinds of potential indirect effects | |
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| Can risk of indirect impacts be reduced by predicting natural enemy efficacy? | |
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| Measuring Natural Enemy Impacts on Pests | |
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| Field Colonization of Natural Enemies | |
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| Limitations from the agent or recipient community | |
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| Managing release sites | |
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| Quality of the release | |
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| Caging or other release methods | |
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| Persistence and confirmation | |
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| Natural Enemy Evaluation | |
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| Natural enemy surveys in crops | |
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| Pre-release surveys in the native range for classical biological control | |
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| Post-release surveys to detect establishment and spread of new agents | |
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| Post-release monitoring for non-target impacts | |
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| Measurement of impacts on the pest | |
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| Separating effects of a complex of natural enemies | |
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| Economic assessment of biological control | |
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| Conserving Biological Control Agents in Crops | |
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| Protecting Natural Enemies from Pesticides | |
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| Problems with pesticides | |
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| Super pests and missing natural enemies | |
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| Dead wildlife and pesticide residues in food | |
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| Cases when pesticides are the best tool | |
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| How pesticides affect natural enemies | |
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| Seeking solutions: physiological selectivity | |
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| Pesticide-resistant natural enemies | |
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| Ecological selectivity: using non-selective pesticides with skill | |
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| Transgenic Bt crops: the ultimate ecologically selective pesticide | |
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| Enhancing Crops as Natural Enemy Environments | |
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| Problem 1: unfavorable crop varieties | |
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| Solution 1: breeding natural enemy-friendly crops | |
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| Problem 2: crop fields physically damaging to natural enemies | |
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| Solution 2: cover crops, mulching, no-till farming, strip harvesting | |
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| Problem 3: inadequate nutritional sources | |
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| Solution 3: adding nutrition to crop environments | |
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| Problem 4: inadequate reproduction opportunities | |
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| Solution 4: creating opportunities for contact with alternative hosts or prey | |
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| Problem 5: inadequate sources of natural enemy colonists | |
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| Solution 5: crop-field connectivity, vegetation diversity, and refuges | |
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| Other practices that can affect natural enemies | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Biopesticides | |
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| Microbial Pesticides: Issues and Concepts | |
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| History of microbial insecticides | |
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| What makes a pathogen a likely biopesticide? | |
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| Overview of options for rearing pathogens | |
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| Agent quality: finding it, keeping it, improving it | |
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| Measuring the efficacy of microbial pesticides | |
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| Degree of market penetration and future outlook | |
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| Use of Arthropod Pathogens as Pesticides | |
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| Bacteria as insecticides | |
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| Fungi as biopesticides | |
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| Viruses as insecticides | |
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| Nematodes for insect control | |
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| Safety of biopesticides | |
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| Augmentative Biological Control | |
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| Biological Control in Greenhouses | |
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| Historical beginnings | |
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| When are greenhouses favorable for biological control? | |
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| Natural enemies available from the insectary industry | |
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| Growers' commitment to change | |
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| Requirements for success: efficacy and low cost | |
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| Methods for mass rearing parasitoids and predators | |
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| Practical use of natural enemies | |
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| Programs with different biological control strategies | |
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| Integration of multiple biocontrol agents for several pests | |
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| Safety of natural enemy releases in greenhouses | |
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| Augmentative Release of Natural Enemies in Outdoor Crops | |
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| Trichogramma wasps for moth control | |
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| Use of predatory phytoseiid mites | |
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| Control of filth flies | |
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| Other examples of specialized agents | |
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| Generalist predators sold for non-specific problems | |
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| Other Targets and New Directions | |
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| Vertebrate Pests | |
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| Predators as vertebrate control agents | |
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| Parasites as vertebrate control agents | |
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| Pathogens as vertebrate control agents | |
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| New avenues for biological control of vertebrates | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Expanding the Biological Control Horizon: New Purposes and New Targets | |
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| Targeting weeds and arthropod pests of natural areas | |
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| Targeting "non-traditional" invasive pests | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Future Directions | |
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| Classical biological control | |
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| Conservation biological control | |
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| Augmentation biological control | |
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| Biopesticides | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| References | |
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| Index | |