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| Progress in Biological Control | |
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| Foreword | |
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| Preface | |
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| Acknowledgements | |
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| The Functions of Non-Prey Foods in the Diets of Entomophagous Species | |
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| The Non-Prey Foods of Entomophagous Arthropods | |
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| The Functions Served by Non-Prey Foods | |
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| Dispersal | |
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| Reproduction | |
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| Other Roles of Non-Prey Foods in Natural Enemy Ecology | |
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| Closing the Introduction; Opening the Rest of the Book | |
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| Glucophagy | |
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| Interclass Differences in Sugar Sources | |
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| The Sugar Feeders | |
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| Predators | |
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| Arachnida: Araneage | |
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| Arachnida: Acari | |
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| Heteroptera | |
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| Coleoptera: Coccinellidae | |
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| Neuroptera: Chrysopidae | |
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| Diptera: Syrphidae | |
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| Hymenoptera: Formicidae | |
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| Parasitoids | |
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| Parasitoid Diptera | |
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| Parasitoid Hymenoptera | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Floral Nectar | |
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| Structure of Floral Nectaries | |
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| Nutrition and Chemistry of Floral Nectar | |
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| Factors That Influence the Production and Nutrition of Nectar | |
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| The Plant-Protective Benefits of Floral Nectar | |
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| Cost of Nectar Production | |
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| Defenses of Floral Nectar | |
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| Architectural Defenses Guarding Floral Nectar | |
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| Chemical Defenses of Floral Nectar | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Extrafloral Nectar | |
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| Phylogenetic and Geographical Trends | |
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| Physiology and Nutritional Composition of EFN | |
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| Protective Benefits of EFNs | |
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| Temporal Occurrence of EFN | |
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| Regulation of EFN Production | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Honeydew | |
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| Nutritional Value of Honeydew | |
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| Factors That Influence Honeydew Production | |
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| Honeydew in Mutualistic Interactions | |
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| Honeydew-Guarding Ants | |
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| Antinutrient Properties of Honeydew | |
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| The Downside of Honeydew: Its Kairomone Effects | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Pollinivory | |
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| The Pollen Feeders | |
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| Predators | |
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| Arachnida: Araneae | |
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| Arachnida: Acari | |
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| Coleoptera: Carabidae | |
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| Coleoptera: Coccinellidae | |
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| Neuroptera: Chrysopidae | |
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| Heteroptera | |
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| Diptera: Syrphidae | |
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| Hymenoptera: Formicidae | |
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| Mantodea: Mantidae | |
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| Parasitoids | |
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| Diptera | |
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| Hymenoptera | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Adaptations to Pollen feeding | |
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| The Pollen-Feeding Process in Entomophages | |
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| Sensory Adaptations for Detecting Pollen | |
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| Vision | |
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| Chemical Cues | |
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| Morphological Adaptations | |
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| Setae | |
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| Mouthparts | |
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| Internal Anatomy | |
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| Adaptations to Digesting the Nutrients of Pollen | |
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| Enzymatic Adaptations to Digesting Pollen | |
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| Other Strategies for Digesting Pollen | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Pollen Nutrition and Defense | |
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| Nutrition | |
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| Carbohydrates | |
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| Proteins | |
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| Lipids | |
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| Vitamins | |
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| Inorganic Minerals | |
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| Defense | |
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| Floral Morphology | |
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| Structural Defenses | |
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| Antinutritive Qualities | |
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| Toxic Pollens | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Granivory | |
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| The Seed Feeders | |
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| Carabidae | |
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| Adult Feeding Behavior | |
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| Granivory by Larvae | |
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| Formicidae | |
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| Harvester Ants | |
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| Gryllidae | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Adaptations to Granivory | |
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| Morphological Adaptations to Seed Feeding | |
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| Adaptations in Adult Granivores | |
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| Adaptations in Larval Granivores | |
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| Seed Feeding Techniques | |
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| Seed Consumption Behavior | |
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| Internalizing the Seed | |
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| Digestive Enzymes | |
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| Seed Digestion in Harvester Ants | |
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| Nutrient Dissemination in Ant Colonies | |
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| Colony-Level Digestion of Seeds | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Seed Nutrition and Defense | |
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| Seed Nutrition | |
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| Carbohydrates | |
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| Proteins | |
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| Lipids | |
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| Minerals | |
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| Vitamins | |
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| Water | |
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| Caloric Content | |
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| Seed Defense | |
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| Seed Size | |
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| Mechanical Defenses of the Seed | |
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| External Structures | |
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| Seed Covering | |
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| Seed Chemistry | |
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| Mucilaginous Secretions | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Seed-Associated Food Bodies | |
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| Diversity of Plants that Produce Seed-Associated Food Bodies | |
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| Physical Characteristics of Food Bodies | |
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| Chemical Composition of Food Bodies | |
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| Diplochory and Seed Cleaning | |
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| Ants | |
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| Other Entomophagous Insects | |
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| Ants as Dispersal Agents | |
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| Ant-Treated Seeds | |
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| Escaping Seed Mortality | |
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| Avoiding Competition | |
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| Providing Favorable Germination Sites | |
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| Invasive Species and Myrmecochorous Plants | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Seed Preferences of Natural Enemies | |
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| Sensory Cues Involved in Seed Selection | |
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| Seed Traits Influencing Seed Selection | |
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| Seed Size | |
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| External Features | |
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| Seed Covering | |
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| Nutrition | |
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| Seed Viability | |
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| Grass Versus Broadleaf Species | |
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| The Dynamics of Preferences | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Fungi and Microorganisms | |
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| Fungi as Food for Arthropods | |
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| Symbioses | |
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| Mycophagy | |
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| Fungi as Food for Natural Enemies | |
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| Water Content | |
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| Carbohydrates | |
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| Proteins | |
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| Lipids | |
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| Vitamins and Minerals | |
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| Defensive Properties of Fungi | |
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| When Mycophagy Benefits the Fungus | |
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| Mycophagous Taxa | |
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| Arachnida: Araneae | |
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| Arachnida: Acari | |
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| Coleoptera: Carabidae | |
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| Coleoptera: Coccinellidae | |
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| Coleoptera: Staphylinidae | |
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| Neuroptera: Chrysopidae | |
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| Heteroptera | |
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| Diptera | |
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| Parasitoid Hymenoptera | |
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| Formicidae | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Symbioses with Microorganisms | |
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| Contaminated Non-Prey Foods | |
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| Endophytes and Seeds | |
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| Nectar and Yeasts | |
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| Sooty Molds and Honeydew | |
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| Nutritional Symbionts of Entomophagous Species | |
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| Physiological Adaptations to Symbioses in Insects | |
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| Nutritional Functions of Microbial Symbioses | |
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| Natural Enemies and Microorganism Associations | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Applied Aspects of Non-Prey Foods for Natural Enemies | |
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| Non-Prey Foods and Biological Control of Arthropods | |
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| Improving Biological Control of Arthropods Using Non-Prey Foods | |
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| Improving Natural Enemy Releases | |
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| Conservation Biological Control | |
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| Strategies for Incorporating Non-Prey Foods into Cropland | |
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| Land-and Farm-Scape Diversity as a Source of Non-Prey Foods | |
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| Integrating Vegetational Diversity Within Fields | |
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| Food Sprays | |
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| Complications with Utilizing Non-Prey Foods in Pest Management | |
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| Are Non-Prey Foods a Sink for Biological Control? | |
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| Caveats to Vegetational Diversity | |
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| Troubles with Food Sprays | |
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| Are Omnivorous Natural Enemies Pests? | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Plant-Incorporated Pest Resistance and Natural Enemies | |
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| Host Plant Resistance | |
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| Nutritional Suitability of Resistant Plants to Natural Enemies | |
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| Intraspecific Variation in Synomone Production | |
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| Intraspecific Variation in Non-Prey Food Production | |
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| Systemic Insecticides | |
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| Systemic Insecticides in Non-Prey Foods | |
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| The Compatibility of Systemics and Natural Enemies | |
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| Insecticidal GM Crops | |
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| Transgenic Toxins in Non-Prey Foods | |
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| Bi-trophic Interactions of Natural Enemies and GM Crops | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Biological Control of Weed Seeds in Agriculture Using Omnivorous Insects | |
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| Are Weed Seeds Limited? | |
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| Seed Production in Agriculture | |
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| Are Weeds Seed Limited? | |
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| Does Disturbance Associated with Crop Production Preclude Biological Control of Weed Seeds? | |
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| Is Biological and Habitat Diversity on Farms Sufficient to Support Biological Control of Weed Seeds? | |
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| The Effects of Landscape Diversity | |
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| Farm Practices that Promote Granivores | |
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| Community Interactions Among Granivores | |
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| Do Granivores Respond Positively to Increasing Seed Densities? | |
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| Characteristics of a Good Weed Seed Biological Control Agent | |
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| Traits of Biological Control Agents | |
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| Seed Burial | |
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| Conclusions: How Can Biological Control of Weed Seeds Be Promoted? | |
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| Conclusions and the Relative Quality of Non-Prey Foods for Natural Enemies | |
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| The Nutritional and Energetic Qualities of Prey and Non-Prey Foods | |
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| Relative Conservation Benefits of Different Non-Prey Foods | |
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| Re-evaluating Flower-Bound Resources | |
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| Attributes of Alternative Non-Prey Foods | |
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| Adaptations that Fuel Omnivory | |
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| Applied Aspects of Omnivory - Complexity Within Multitrophic Interactions | |
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| Concluding Remarks | |
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| References | |
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| Taxonomic Index | |
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| Subject Index | |