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| Foreword | |
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| Foreword | |
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| Foreword | |
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| Preface | |
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| Acknowledgments | |
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| Traffic Safety | |
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| Traffic Safety Facts | |
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| Fatalities | |
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| Leading Causes of Crashes | |
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| Current Trends | |
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| European Union | |
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| Japan | |
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| Developing Countries | |
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| References | |
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| Automotive Safety Evolution | |
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| Passive Safety | |
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| Safety Cage and the Birth of Passive Safety | |
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| Seat Belts | |
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| Air Bags | |
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| Active Safety | |
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| Antilock Braking System | |
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| Electronic Stability Control | |
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| Brake Assist | |
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| Advanced Driver Assistance Systems | |
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| Adaptive Cruise Control | |
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| Blind Spot Assist | |
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| Attention Assist | |
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| Precrash Systems | |
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| Cooperative Safety | |
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| References | |
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| Vehicle Architectures | |
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| Electronic Control Units | |
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| Vehicle Sensors | |
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| Radars | |
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| Cameras | |
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| Onboard Communication Networks | |
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| Controller Area Network | |
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| Local Interconnect Network | |
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| FlexRay | |
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| Media Oriented Systems Transport | |
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| Onboard Diagnostics | |
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| Vehicle Data | |
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| Vehicle Data Security | |
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| Vehicle Positioning | |
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| Global Positioning System | |
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| Galileo | |
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| Global Navigation Satellite System | |
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| Positioning Accuracy | |
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| References | |
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| Connected Vehicles | |
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| Connected Vehicle Applications | |
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| Hard Safety Applications | |
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| Soft Safety Applications | |
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| Mobility and Convenience Applications | |
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| Uniqueness in Consumer Vehicle Networks | |
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| Vehicle Communication Modes | |
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| Vehicle-to-Vehicle Local Broadcast | |
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| V2V Multihop Message Dissemination | |
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| Infrastructure-to-Vehicle Local Broadcast | |
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| Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Bidirectional Communications | |
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| Wireless Communications Technology for Vehicles | |
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| References | |
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| Dedicated Short-Range Communications | |
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| The 5.9 GHz Spectrum | |
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| DSRC Frequency Band Usage | |
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| DSRC Channels | |
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| DSRC Operations | |
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| DSRC in the European Union | |
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| DSRC in Japan | |
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| DSRC Standards | |
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| Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments | |
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| Wireless Access in Vehicular Environments Protocol Stack | |
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| International Harmonization | |
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| References | |
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| WAVE Physical Layer | |
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| Physical Layer Operations | |
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| Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing | |
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| Modulation and Coding Rates | |
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| Frame Reception | |
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| PHY Amendments | |
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| Channel Width | |
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| Spectrum Masks | |
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| Improved Receiver Performance | |
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| PHY Layer Modeling | |
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| Network Simulator Architecture | |
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| RF Model | |
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| Wireless PHY | |
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| References | |
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| WAVE Media Access Control Layer | |
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| Media Access Control Layer Operations | |
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| Carrier Sensing Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance | |
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| Hidden Terminal Effects | |
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| Basic Service Set | |
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| MAC Layer Amendments | |
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| MAC Layer Modeling | |
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| Transmission | |
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| Reception | |
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| Channel State Manager | |
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| Back-Off Manager | |
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| Transmission Coordination | |
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| Reception Coordination | |
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| Overhauled ns-2 Implementation | |
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| References | |
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| DSRC Data Rates | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Communication Density | |
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| Simulation Study | |
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| Broadcast Reception Rates | |
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| Channel Access Delay | |
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| Frames Reception Failures | |
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| Optimal Data Rate | |
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| Modulation and Coding Rates | |
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| Simulation Study | |
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| Simulation Matrix | |
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| Simulation Results | |
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| References | |
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| WAVE Upper Layers | |
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| Introduction | |
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| DSRC Multichannel Operations | |
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| Time Synchronization | |
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| Synchronization Intervals | |
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| Guard Intervals | |
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| Channel Switching | |
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| Channel Switching State Machine | |
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| Protocol Evaluation | |
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| Simulation Study | |
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| Simulation Scenarios | |
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| Simulation Results | |
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| Protocol Enhancements | |
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| WAVE Short Message Protocol | |
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| References | |
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| Vehicle-to-Infrastructure Safety Applications | |
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| Intersection Crashes | |
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| Cooperative Intersection Collision Avoidance System for Violations | |
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| CICAS-V Design | |
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| CICAS-V Development | |
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| CICAS-V Testing | |
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| Integrated Safety Demonstration | |
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| Demonstration Concept | |
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| Hardware Components | |
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| Demo Design | |
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| References | |
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| Vehicle-to-Vehicle Safety Applications | |
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| Cooperation among Vehicles | |
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| V2V Safety Applications | |
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| V2V Safety Applications Design | |
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| Basic Safety Messages | |
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| Minimum Performance Requirements | |
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| Target Classifi cation | |
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| Vehicle Representation | |
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| Sample Applications | |
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| System Implementation | |
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| Onboard Unit Hardware Components | |
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| OBU Software Architecture | |
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| Driver-Vehicle Interface | |
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| System Testing | |
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| Communications Coverage and Antenna Considerations | |
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| Positioning | |
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| References | |
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| DSRC Scalability | |
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| Introduction | |
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| DSRC Data Traffi c | |
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| DSRC Safety Messages | |
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| Transmission Parameters | |
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| Channel Load Assessment | |
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| Congestion Control Algorithms | |
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| Desired Properties | |
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| Transmission Power Adjustment | |
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| Message Rate Adjustment | |
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| Simulation Study | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| References | |
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| Security and Privacy Threats and Requirements | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Adversaries | |
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| Security Threats | |
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| Send False Safety Messages Using Valid Security Credentials | |
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| Falsely Accuse Innocent Vehicles | |
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| Impersonate Vehicles or Other Network Entities | |
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| Denial-of-Service Attacks Specific to Consumer Vehicle Networks | |
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| Compromise OBU Software or Firmware | |
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| Privacy Threats | |
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| Privacy in a Vehicle Network | |
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| Privacy Threats in Consumer Vehicle Networks | |
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| How Driver Privacy can be Breached Today | |
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| Basic Security Capabilities | |
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| Authentication | |
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| Misbehavior Detection and Revocation | |
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| Data Integrity | |
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| Data Confidentiality | |
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| Privacy Protections Capabilities | |
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| Design and Performance Considerations | |
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| Scalability | |
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| Balancing Competing Requirements | |
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| Minimal Side Effects | |
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| Quantifi able Levels of Security and Privacy | |
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| Adaptability | |
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| Security and Privacy Protection for V2V Broadcast | |
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| Security and Privacy Protection for Communications with Security Servers | |
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| References | |
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| Cryptographic Mechanisms | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Categories of Cryptographic Mechanisms | |
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| Cryptographic Hash Functions | |
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| Symmetric Key Algorithms | |
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| Public Key (Asymmetric Key) Algorithms | |
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| Digital Signature Algorithms | |
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| The RSA Algorithm | |
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| The DSA Algorithm | |
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| The ECDSA Algorithm | |
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| ECDSA for Vehicle Safety Communications | |
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| Message Authentication and Message Integrity Verifi cation | |
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| Authentication and Integrity Verifi cation Using Hash Functions | |
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| Authentication and Integrity Verifi cation Using Digital Signatures | |
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| Diffi e-Hellman Key Establishment Protocol | |
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| The Original Diffie-Hellman Key Establishment Protocol | |
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| Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman Key Establishment Protocol | |
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| Elliptic Curve Integrated Encryption Scheme (ECIES) | |
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| The Basic Idea | |
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| Scheme Setup | |
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| Encrypt a Message | |
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| Decrypt a Message | |
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| Performance | |
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| References | |
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| Public Key Infrastructure for Vehicle Networks | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Public Key Certificates | |
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| Message Authentication with Certificates | |
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| Certifi cate Revocation List | |
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| A Baseline Reference Vehicular PKI Model | |
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| Confi gure Initial Security Parameters and Assign Initial Certificates | |
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| Vehicles Create Their Private and Public Keys | |
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| Certificate Authority Creates Private and Public Keys for Vehicles | |
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| Acquire New Keys and Certifi cates | |
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| Distribute Certifi cates to Vehicles for Signature Verifications | |
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| Detect Misused Certifi cates and Misbehaving Vehicles | |
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| Local Misbehavior Detection | |
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| Global Misbehavior Detection | |
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| Misbehavior Reporting | |
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| Ways for Vehicles to Acquire CRLs | |
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| How Often CRLs should be Distributed to Vehicles? | |
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| PKI Hierarchy | |
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| Certifi cate Chaining to Enable Hierarchical CAs | |
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| Hierarchical CA Architecture Example | |
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| Privacy-Preserving Vehicular PKI | |
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| Quantitative Measurements of Vehicle Anonymity | |
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| Quantitative Measurement of Message Unlinkability | |
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| References | |
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| Privacy Protection with Shared Certificates | |
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| Shared Certificates | |
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| The Combinatorial Certificate Scheme | |
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| Certificate Revocation Collateral Damage | |
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| Certified Intervals | |
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| The Concept of Certified Interval | |
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| Certified Interval Produced by the Original Combinatorial Certificate Scheme | |
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| Reduce Collateral Damage and Improve Certified Interval | |
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| Reduce Collateral Damage Caused by a Single Misused Certificate | |
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| Vehicles Become Statistically Distinguishable When Misusing Multiple Certificates | |
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| The Dynamic Reward Algorithm | |
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| Privacy in Low Vehicle Density Areas | |
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| The Problem | |
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| The Blend-In Algorithm to Improve Privacy | |
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| References | |
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| Privacy Protection with Short-Lived Unique Certificates | |
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| Short-Lived Unique Certificates | |
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| The Basic Short-Lived Certificate Scheme | |
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| The Problem of Large CRL | |
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| Anonymously Linked Certificates to Reduce CRL Size | |
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| Certificate Tags | |
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| CRL Processing by Vehicles | |
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| Backward Unlinkability | |
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| Reduce CRL Search Time | |
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| Unlinked Short-Lived Certificates | |
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| Reduce the Volume of Certificate Request and Response Messages | |
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| Determine the Number of Certificates for Each Vehicle | |
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| References | |
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| Privacy Protection with Group Signatures | |
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| Group Signatures | |
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| Zero-Knowledge Proof of Knowledge | |
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| The ACJT Group Signature Scheme and its Extensions | |
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| The ACJT Group Signature Scheme | |
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| The Challenge of Group Membership Revocation | |
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| ACJT Extensions to Support Membership Revocation | |
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| The CG Group Signature Scheme with Revocation | |
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| The Short Group Signatures Scheme | |
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| The Short Group Signatures Scheme | |
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| Membership Revocation | |
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| Group Signature Schemes with Verifier-Local Revocation | |
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| References | |
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| Privacy Protection against Certificate Authorities | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Basic Idea | |
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| Baseline Split CA Architecture, Protocol, and Message Processing | |
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| Split CA Architecture for Shared Certifi cates | |
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| Split CA Architecture for Unlinked Short-Lived Certificates | |
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| Acquire One Unlinked Certifi cate at a Time | |
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| Assign Batches of Unlinked Short-Lived Certifi cates | |
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| Revoke Batches of Unlinked Certifi cates | |
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| Request for Decryption Keys for Certificate Batches | |
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| Split CA Architecture for Anonymously Linked Short-Lived Certificates | |
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| Assign One Anonymously Linked Short-Lived Certificate at a Time | |
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| Assign Batches of Anonymously Linked Short-Lived Certificates | |
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| Revoke Batches of Anonymously Linked Short-Lived Certificates | |
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| Request for Decryption Keys for Certificate Batches | |
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| References | |
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| Comparison of Privacy-Preserving Certificate Management Schemes | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Comparison of Main Characteristics | |
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| Misbehavior Detection | |
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| Abilities to Prevent Privacy Abuse by CA and MDS Operators | |
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| Summary | |
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| IEEE 1609.2 Security Services | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The IEEE 1609.2 Standard | |
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| Certificates and Certificate Authority Hierarchy | |
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| Formats for Public Key, Signature, Certificate, and CRL | |
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| Public Key Formats | |
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| Signature Formats | |
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| Certificate Format | |
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| CRL Format | |
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| Message Formats and Processing for Generating Encrypted Messages | |
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| Sending Messages | |
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| Request Certifi cates from the CA | |
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| Request and Processing CRL | |
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| What the Current IEEE 1609.2 Standard Does Not Cover | |
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| No Support for Anonymous Message Authentication | |
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| Separate Vehicle-CA Communication Protocols Are Required | |
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| Interactions and Interfaces between CA Entities Not Addressed | |
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| References | |
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| 4G for Vehicle Safety Communications | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Long-Term Revolution (LTE) | |
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| LTE for Vehicle Safety Communications | |
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| Issues to Be Addressed | |
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| LTE for V2I Safety Communications | |
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| LTE for V2V Safety Communications | |
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| LTE Broadcast and Multicast Services | |
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| References | |
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| Glossary | |
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| Index | |