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| Preface | |
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| Optical Lens | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Conventional Lens | |
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| Refraction of Light | |
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| A Simple Lens | |
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| A Compound Lens | |
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| Aberration and Resolution | |
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| Paraxial Optics | |
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| Aberration | |
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| Resolution | |
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| Merits and Demerits of Solid Lens | |
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| Adaptive Optical Lenses | |
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| Eye Structure | |
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| Lens Character | |
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| Performances | |
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| The Eye-Inspired Lens | |
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| Homework Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Elastomeric Membrane Lens | |
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| Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) Membrane | |
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| PDMS Chemical Structure | |
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| Basic Material Properties | |
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| Optical Transmission | |
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| Fabrication of PDMS Membrane | |
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| Device Structure | |
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| Requirements of the Liquid | |
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| Surface Configuration | |
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| PDMS Lens Cell Fabrication | |
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| Performance Evaluation Method | |
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| Actuators | |
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| Syringe Pump | |
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| Motor Pumps | |
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| Piezoelectric Linear Actuator | |
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| Artificial Muscles | |
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| Voice Coil Actuator (VCA) | |
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| Other Liquid Lenses | |
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| PDMS Microlens Array | |
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| Device Configuration | |
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| Fabrication Method | |
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| Performance Evaluation | |
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| Solid PDMS Lenses | |
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| Squeezing the Lens's Border | |
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| Elongating the Lens's Diameter | |
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| Hybrid Lens System | |
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| Summary and Technical Challenges | |
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| Homework Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Electrowetting Lens | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Surface Tension | |
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| Contact Angle and Wetting | |
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| Basic Theory of Electrowetting | |
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| Droplet Deformation | |
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| Electrowetting Lens | |
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| Shape of Droplet Surface | |
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| Focal Length Equation | |
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| Tunable Electrowetting Lens | |
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| Desired Properties of the Liquids | |
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| Singlet Lens with Two Liquids | |
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| Lens Cell 1 | |
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| Lens Cell 2 | |
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| Microlens Array | |
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| Remaining Challenges | |
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| Summary | |
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| Homework Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Dielectrophoretic Lens | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Dielectrophoretic Force | |
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| Dielectric Liquid Materials | |
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| Singlet Lens | |
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| Continuous Flat Electrodes | |
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| Hole Patterned Electrode | |
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| Well-Shaped Electrode | |
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| Fringing Field | |
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| Microlens Array | |
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| Switchable Lens | |
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| Operation Principle | |
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| Beam Diffuser | |
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| Light Shutter | |
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| Display | |
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| Noncontact Electro-optic Inspection | |
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| Gravity Effect | |
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| Measurement Method | |
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| Operation Principles | |
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| Experimental Results | |
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| Applications | |
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| Summary | |
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| Homework Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Other Adaptive Liquid Lenses | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Mechanical-Wetting Lens | |
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| Out-of-Plane Tuning | |
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| Hydrodynamic Liquid-Air In-Plane Tuning | |
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| Hydrodynamic Liquid-Liquid In-Plane Tuning | |
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| Ferrofluidic Transducer Lens | |
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| Ferrofluidic Material | |
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| First Example | |
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| Second Example | |
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| Third Example | |
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| Electromagnetic Actuator Lens | |
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| Stimuli Response Hydrogel Lens | |
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| Acoustic Liquid Lens | |
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| Acoustic Radiation Force | |
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| Structure of an Acoustic Lens | |
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| Lens Performance | |
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| Electrochemical Actuation Lens | |
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| Electrostatic Force Actuation | |
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| Summary | |
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| Homework Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Liquid Crystal Lens | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Physical Properties | |
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| Phase Transitions and Order Parameter | |
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| Rod-like Structure | |
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| Dipole Moment | |
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| Optical Anisotropy | |
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| Dielectric Anisotropy | |
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| LC Device | |
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| Device Fabrication | |
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| Optical Path Difference (OPD) | |
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| Focal Length Equation | |
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| Curved Electrode | |
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| Curved Electrode and Nonuniform Cell Gap | |
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| Curved Electrode and Planar Cell Gap | |
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| Strip-Patterned Electrode | |
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| Hole-Patterned Electrode | |
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| Hole Pattern Inside the Lens Cell | |
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| Hole Pattern Outside the Lens Cell | |
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| Magnification of LC Lens System | |
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| Modal Addressing | |
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| Cylindrical LC Lens | |
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| Polymer-LC Composite Lens | |
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| Anisotropic Phase Separation | |
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| Polymer-Dispersed Liquid Crystal | |
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| Polymer Network Liquid Crystal (PNLC) | |
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| Blue Phase Liquid Crystal Lens | |
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| Diffractive LC Lens | |
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| LC Microlens Array | |
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| Lenticular Microlens Array | |
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| Microlens Array with Curved Electrode | |
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| Polymer-Stabilized LC Microlens Array | |
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| Summary | |
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| Homework Problems | |
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| References | |
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| Index | |