| |
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| Preface | |
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| Acknowledgements | |
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| Abbreviations, symbols and transcription | |
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| Overview of the Cognitive Linguistics Enterprise | |
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| Introduction | |
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| What does it mean to know a language? | |
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| What is language for? | |
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| The symbolic function of language | |
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| The interactive function of language | |
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| The systematic structure of language | |
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| Evidence for a system | |
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| The systematic structure of thought | |
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| What do linguists do? | |
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| What? | |
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| Why? | |
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| How? | |
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| Speaker intuitions | |
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| Converging evidence | |
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| What it means to know a language | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| The nature of cognitive linguistics: assumptions and commitments | |
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| Two key commitments | |
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| The 'Generalisation Commitment' | |
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| The 'Cognitive Commitment' | |
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| The embodied mind | |
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| Embodied experience | |
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| Embodied cognition | |
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| Experiential realism | |
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| Cognitive semantics and cognitive approaches to grammar | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Universals and variation in language, thought and experience | |
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| Universals in thought and language | |
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| Typological universals | |
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| Universals in formal linguistics | |
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| Universals in cognitive linguistics | |
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| Cross-linguistic patterns in semantic systems | |
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| Patterns in the conceptualisation of space | |
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| Patterns in the conceptualisation of time | |
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| Cross-linguistic variation in semantic systems | |
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| Variation in the conceptualisation of space | |
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| Variation in the conceptualisation of time | |
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| Linguistic relativity and cognitive linguistics | |
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| Whorf and the Linguistic Relativity Principle | |
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| Language as a shaper of thought | |
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| The cognitive linguistics position | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Language in use: knowledge of language, language change and language acquisition | |
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| Language in use | |
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| A usage event | |
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| The relationship between usage and linguistic structure | |
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| Comprehension and production | |
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| Context | |
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| Frequency | |
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| Cognitive Grammar | |
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| Abstraction, schematisation and language use | |
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| Schemas and their instantiations | |
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| Partial sanction | |
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| The non-reductive nature of schemas | |
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| Frequency in schema formation | |
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| A usage-based approach to language change | |
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| Historical linguistics and language change | |
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| The Utterance Selection Theory of language change | |
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| The Generalised Theory of Selection and the Theory of Utterance Selection | |
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| Causal mechanisms for language change | |
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| The usage-based approach to language acquisition | |
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| Empirical findings in language acquisition | |
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| The cognitive view: socio-cognitive mechanisms in language acquisition | |
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| Comparing the generative view of language acquisition | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Cognitive Semantics | |
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| Introduction | |
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| What is cognitive semantics? | |
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| Guiding principles | |
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| Conceptual structure is embodied | |
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| Semantic structure is conceptual structure | |
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| Meaning representation is encyclopaedic | |
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| Meaning construction is conceptualisation | |
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| Phenomena investigated within cognitive semantics | |
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| The bodily basis of meaning | |
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| Conceptual structure | |
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| Encyclopaedic semantics | |
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| Mappings | |
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| Categorisation | |
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| Word meaning and polysemy | |
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| Methodology | |
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| Some comparisons with formal approaches to semantics | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Embodiment and conceptual structure | |
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| Image schemas | |
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| What is an image schema? | |
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| Properties of image schemas | |
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| Image schemas and linguistic meaning | |
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| A provisional list of image schemas | |
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| Image schemas and abstract thought | |
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| Conceptual structure | |
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| Semantic structure | |
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| Schematic systems | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| The encyclopaedic view of meaning | |
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| Dictionaries versus encylopaedias | |
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| The dictionary view | |
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| Problems with the dictionary view | |
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| Word meaning versus sentence meaning | |
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| The encyclopaedic view | |
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| Frame semantics | |
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| What is a semantic frame? | |
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| Frames in cognitive psychology | |
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| The Commercial Event frame | |
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| Speech event frames | |
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| Consequences of adopting a frame-based model | |
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| The theory of domains | |
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| What is a domain? | |
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| Basic, image-schematic and abstract domains | |
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| Other characteristics of domains | |
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| Profile/base organisation | |
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| Active zones | |
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| The perceptual basis of knowledge representation | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Categorisation and idealised cognitive models | |
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| Categorisation and cognitive semantics | |
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| The classical theory | |
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| The definitional problem | |
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| The problem of conceptual fuzziness | |
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| The problem of prototypicality | |
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| Further problems | |
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| Prototype theory | |
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| Principles of categorisation | |
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| The categorisation system | |
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| The vertical dimension | |
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| The horizontal dimension | |
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| Problems with prototype theory | |
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| The theory of idealised cognitive models | |
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| Sources of typicality effects | |
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| Radial categories as a further source of typicality effects | |
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| Addressing the problems with prototype theory | |
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| The structure of ICMs | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Metaphor and metonymy | |
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| Literal versus figurative language | |
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| Literal and figurative language as complex concepts | |
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| Can the distinction be maintained? | |
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| What is metaphor? | |
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| Conceptual Metaphor Theory | |
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| The unidirectionality of metaphor | |
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| Motivation for target and source | |
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| Metaphorical entailments | |
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| Metaphor systems | |
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| Metaphors and image schemas | |
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| Invariance | |
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| The conceptual nature of metaphor | |
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| Hiding and highlighting | |
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| Primary Metaphor Theory | |
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| Primary and compound metaphors | |
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| Experiential correlation | |
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| Motivating primary metaphors | |
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| Distinguishing primary and compound metaphors | |
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| What is metonymy? | |
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| Conceptual metonymy | |
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| Metonymy as an access mechanism | |
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| Metonymy-producing relationships | |
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| Vehicles for metonymy | |
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| Metaphor-metonymy interaction | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| |
| Word meaning and radial categories | |
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| Polysemy as a conceptual phenomenon | |
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| Words as radial categories | |
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| The full-specification approach | |
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| Image schema transformations | |
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| Metaphorical extensions | |
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| Problems with the full-specification approach | |
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| The Principled Polysemy approach | |
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| Distinguishing between senses | |
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| Establishing the prototypical sense | |
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| Illustration of a radial category based on Principled Polysemy | |
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| Beyond prepositions | |
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| The importance of context for polysemy | |
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| Usage context: subsenses | |
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| Sentential context: facets | |
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| Knowledge context: ways of seeing | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Meaning construction and mental spaces | |
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| Sentence meaning in formal semantics | |
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| Meaning construction in cognitive semantics | |
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| Towards a cognitive theory of meaning construction | |
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| The architecture of mental space construction | |
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| Space builders | |
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| Elements | |
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| Properties and relations | |
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| Mental space lattices | |
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| Counterparts and connectors | |
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| The Access Principle | |
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| Roles and values | |
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| An illustration of mental space construction | |
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| The dynamic nature of meaning construction | |
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| |
| Tense and aspect in English | |
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| |
| The tense-aspect system in Mental Spaces Theory | |
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| |
| Epistemic distance | |
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| |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| |
| Exercises | |
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| Conceptual blending | |
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| The origins of Blending Theory | |
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| Towards a theory of conceptual integration | |
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| The nature of blending | |
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| The elements of conceptual blending | |
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| Further linguistic examples | |
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| Non-linguistic examples | |
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| Vital relations and compressions | |
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| Vital relations | |
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| A taxonomy of vital relations and their compressions | |
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| Disintegration and decompression | |
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| A taxonomy of integration networks | |
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| Simplex networks | |
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| Mirror networks | |
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| Single-scope networks | |
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| Double-scope networks | |
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| Multiple blending | |
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| Constraining Blending Theory | |
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| |
| |
| Comparing Blending Theory with Conceptual Metaphor Theory | |
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| |
| |
| Contrasts | |
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| |
| |
| When is a metaphor not a blend? | |
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| |
| |
| What Blending Theory adds to Conceptual Metaphor Theory | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Cognitive semantics in context | |
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| Truth-conditional semantics | |
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| Meaning, truth and reality | |
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| |
| Object language versus metalanguage | |
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| The inconsistency of natural language | |
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| Sentences and propositions | |
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| Truth-conditional semantics and the generative enterprise | |
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| Compositionality of meaning | |
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| Translating natural language into a metalanguage | |
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| Semantic interpretation and matching | |
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| Comparison with cognitive semantics | |
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| Relevance Theory | |
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| Ostensive communication | |
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| Mutual cognitive environment | |
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| Relevance | |
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| Explicature and implicature | |
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| Metaphor | |
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| Comparison with cognitive semantics | |
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| |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Cognitive Approaches to Grammar | |
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| Introduction | |
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| |
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| What is a cognitive approach to grammar? | |
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| |
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| Guiding assumptions | |
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| The symbolic thesis | |
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| The usage-based thesis | |
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| The architecture of the model | |
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| Distinct cognitive approaches to grammar | |
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| The 'Conceptual Structuring System Model' | |
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| Cognitive Grammar | |
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| Constructional approaches to grammar | |
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| Cognitive approaches to grammaticalisation | |
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| Grammatical terminology | |
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| Grammar | |
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| Units of grammar | |
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| Word classes | |
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| Syntax | |
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| Grammatical functions | |
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| Agreement and case | |
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| Characteristics of the cognitive approach to grammar | |
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| Grammatical knowledge: a structured inventory of symbolic units | |
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| Features of the closed-class subsystem | |
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| Schemas and instances | |
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| Sanctioning and grammaticality | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| The conceptual basis of grammar | |
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| The grammatical subsystem: encoding semantic structure | |
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| Talmy's 'Conceptual Structuring System Model' | |
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| The configuration of Space and Time | |
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| Conceptual alternativity | |
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| Schematic systems | |
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| The 'Configurational Structure System' | |
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| The 'Attentional System' | |
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| The 'Perspectival System' | |
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| The 'Force-Dynamics System' | |
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| Langacker's theory of Cognitive Grammar | |
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| The conceptual basis of word classes | |
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| Attention | |
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| Force-dynamics | |
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| Categorisation and polysemy in grammar: the network conception | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Cognitive Grammar: word classes | |
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| Word classes: linguistic categorisation | |
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| Nominal predications: nouns | |
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| Bounding | |
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| Homogeneity versus heterogeneity | |
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| Expansibility and contractibility versus replicability | |
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| Abstractions | |
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| Nominal versus relational predications | |
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| Temporal versus atemporal relations | |
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| Temporal relations: verbs | |
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| Atemporal relations | |
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| Class schemas | |
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| Nominal grounding predications | |
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| Determiners and quantifiers | |
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| Grounding | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Cognitive Grammar: constructions | |
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| Phrase structure | |
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| Valence | |
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| Correspondence | |
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| Profile determinacy | |
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| Conceptual autonomy versus conceptual dependence | |
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| Constituency | |
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| The prototypical grammatical construction | |
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| Word structure | |
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| |
| Phonological autonomy and dependence | |
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| Semantic autonomy and dependence | |
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| |
| Prototypical stems and affixes | |
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| |
| Composite structure | |
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| Constructional schemas | |
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| |
| Grammatical morphemes and agreement | |
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| Clauses | |
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| Valence at the clause level | |
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| Grammatical functions and transitivity | |
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| Case | |
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| Marked coding: the passive construction | |
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| Summary | |
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| |
| Further reading | |
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| |
| Exercises | |
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| |
| Cognitive Grammar: tense, aspect, mood and voice | |
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| |
| English verbs: form and function | |
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| The clausal head | |
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| The passive construction: [be[subscript 2] [PERF[subscript 3] [V]]] | |
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| The progressive construction: [be[subscript 1] [-ing [V]]] | |
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| The perfect construction: [have [PERF[subscript 4] [V]]] | |
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| |
| The grounding predication: mood and tense | |
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| Mood | |
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| Tense | |
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| The epistemic model | |
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| |
| Situation aspect | |
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| |
| Situation types | |
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| |
| Perfective and imperfective PROCESSES | |
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| |
| |
| Aspect and the count/mass distinction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
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| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| Motivating a construction grammar | |
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| |
| |
| Constructions versus 'words and rules' | |
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| |
| |
| Exploring idiomatic expressions | |
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| |
| |
| Typology of idiomatic expressions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Case study I: the let alone construction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Case study II: the what's X doing Y construction | |
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| |
| |
| Construction Grammar | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Construction Grammar model | |
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| |
| |
| Construction Grammar: a 'broadly generative' model | |
| |
| |
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| Comparing Construction Grammar with Cognitive Grammar | |
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| The 'Generalisation Commitment' | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| The architecture of construction grammars | |
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| Goldberg's construction grammar | |
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| Assumptions | |
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| Advantages of a constructional approach to verb argument structure | |
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| The relationship between verbs and constructions | |
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| Relationships between constructions | |
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| Case studies | |
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| Radical Construction Grammar | |
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| Taxonomy of constructions | |
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| Emphasis on diversity | |
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| Five key features of RCG | |
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| Embodied Construction Grammar | |
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| Emphasis on language processing | |
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| Analysis and simulation | |
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| Comparing constructional approaches to grammar | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Grammaticalisation | |
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| The nature of grammaticalisation | |
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| Form change | |
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| Meaning change | |
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| Metaphorical extension approaches | |
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| Case study: Object-to-Space | |
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| Case study: Space-to-Possession | |
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| Invited Inferencing Theory | |
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| Case study: the evolution of must | |
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| The subjectification approach | |
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| Case study: be going to | |
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| Case study: the evolution of auxiliaries from verbs of motion or posture | |
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| Comparison of the three approaches: be going to | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Cognitive approaches to grammar in context | |
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| Theories of grammar: assumptions, objectives, methodology | |
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| Cognitive approaches to grammar | |
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| Generative approaches to grammar | |
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| Cognitive versus generative models | |
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| Functional-typological approaches to grammar | |
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| Core issues in grammar: comparing cognitive and generative accounts | |
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| Word classes | |
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| Constituency: heads and dependents | |
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| The status of tree diagrams | |
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| Grammatical functions and case | |
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| The verb string: tense, aspect and mood | |
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| The passive construction | |
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| Summary | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Exercises | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Assessing the cognitive linguistics enterprise | |
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| Achievements | |
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| Remaining challenges | |
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| Summary | |
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| Tables and Figures | |
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| References | |
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| Index | |