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| Introduction | |
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| Motivation | |
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| Pesticides and opinion | |
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| The fly in the soup | |
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| Low-tech food production | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| A great market | |
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| The number of chemicals used as pesticides | |
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| Amounts of pesticides produced | |
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| Marketing | |
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| Dirty dozens | |
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| Nomenclature, definitions, and terminology | |
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| Toxicology, ecotoxicology, and environmental toxicology | |
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| Pesticides, biocides, common names, chemical names, and trade names | |
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| Chemical structures are versatile | |
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| Helpful reading | |
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| Biochemistry and cell biology | |
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| General toxicology | |
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| Insect biochemistry, plant physiology, and neurophysiology | |
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| Pesticides | |
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| Side effects of pesticides | |
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| Why is a toxicant poisonous? | |
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| Seven routes to death | |
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| Enzyme inhibitors | |
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| Disturbance of the chemical signal systems | |
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| Toxicants that generate very reactive molecules that destroy cellular components | |
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| Weak organic bases or acids that degrade the pH gradients across membranes | |
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| Toxicants that dissolve in lipophilic membranes and disturb their physical structure | |
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| Toxicants that disturb the electrolytic or osmotic balance or the pH | |
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| Strong electrophiles, alkalis, acids, oxidants, or reductants that destroy tissue, DNA, or proteins | |
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| How to measure toxicity | |
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| Endpoints | |
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| Endpoints in ecotoxicology and pest control | |
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| Endpoints in human toxicology | |
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| Dose and effect | |
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| Dose and response | |
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| Dose-response curves for the stable fly | |
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| Scatter in dose-response data | |
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| LD50 and related parameters | |
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| Acute and chronic toxicity | |
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| Interactions | |
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| Definitions | |
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| Isoboles | |
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| Mechanisms of interactions | |
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| Examples | |
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| Piperonyl butoxide | |
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| Deltamethrin and fenitrothion | |
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| Atrazine and organophosphate insecticides | |
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| Pesticides interfering with processes important to all organisms | |
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| Pesticides that disturb energy production | |
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| Anabolic and catabolic processes | |
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| Synthesis of acetyl coenzyme A and the toxic mechanism of arsenic | |
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| The citric acid cycle and its inhibitors | |
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| Fluoroacetate | |
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| Inhibitors of succinic dehydrogenase | |
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| The electron transport chain and production of ATP | |
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| Rotenone | |
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| Inhibitors of electron transfer from cytochrome b to c[subscript 1] | |
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| Inhibitors of cytochrome oxidase | |
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| Uncouplers | |
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| Inhibition of ATP production | |
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| Organotin compounds | |
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| Diafenthiuron | |
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| Summary | |
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| Herbicides that inhibit photosynthesis | |
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| Weak organic acids | |
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| Free radical generators | |
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| D[subscript 1] blockers | |
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| Urea derivatives | |
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| Triazines | |
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| Inhibitors of carotene synthesis | |
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| Amitrole | |
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| Aclonifen | |
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| Beflubutamid | |
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| Protoporphyrinogen oxidase inhibitors | |
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| General SH reagents and free radical generators | |
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| Mercury | |
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| Other multisite fungicides | |
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| Perhalogenmercaptans | |
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| Alkylenebis(dithiocarbamate)s and dimethyldithiocarbamates | |
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| Fungicides with copper | |
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| Pesticides interfering with cell division | |
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| Fungicides | |
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| Benomyl | |
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| Thiofanate-methyl | |
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| Carbendazim | |
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| Thiabendazole | |
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| Diethofencarb | |
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| Herbicides | |
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| Trifluralin | |
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| Carbetamide | |
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| Pesticides inhibiting enzymes in nucleic acid synthesis | |
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| Sporulation-inhibiting fungicides | |
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| Inhibition of incorporation of uridine into RNA | |
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| Bacillus thuringiensis and its toxins | |
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| The mechanism of action of [delta]-endotoxins | |
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| Biotechnology | |
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| Engineered plants | |
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| Biology | |
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| Commercial products | |
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| Specific enzyme inhibitors | |
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| Inhibitors of ergosterol synthesis | |
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| Inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase | |
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| Inhibition of squalene expoxidase | |
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| DMI fungicides | |
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| Examples of DMI fungicides from each group | |
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| Azoles and triazoles | |
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| Pyridines and pyrimidines | |
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| Piperazines | |
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| Amines | |
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| Morpholines | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Herbicides that inhibit synthesis of amino acids | |
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| The mode of action of glyphosate | |
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| Degradation of glyphosate | |
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| Selectivity | |
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| Mode of action of glufosinate | |
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| Inhibitors of acetolactate synthase | |
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| Inhibitors of chitin synthesis | |
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| Insecticides | |
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| Fungicides | |
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| Inhibitors of cholinesterase | |
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| Acetylcholinesterase | |
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| Organophosphates | |
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| Naturally occurring organophosphorus insecticides | |
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| Carbamates | |
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| Molecular structure and potency of inhibition | |
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| Development of organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides | |
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| Parathion and similar compounds | |
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| Aliphatic organophosphates | |
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| Examples of carbamates | |
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| Other enzymes inhibited by organophosphates and carbamates | |
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| The butyrylcholinesterases | |
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| The neurotoxic target enzyme (NTE) | |
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| Carboxylesterases | |
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| Interference with signal transduction in the nerves | |
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| Potency of nerve poisons | |
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| Selectivity | |
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| The nerve and the nerve cell | |
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| Pesticides that act on the axon | |
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| Impulse transmission along the axon | |
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| Pesticides | |
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| Pyrethroids | |
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| DDT and its analogues | |
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| Pesticides acting on synaptic transmission | |
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| Inhibitory synapses | |
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| Pesticides | |
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| Lindane | |
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| Fipronil | |
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| Cyclodiene insecticides | |
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| Avermectins | |
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| The cholinergic synapses | |
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| Atropine | |
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| Nicotinoids and neonicotinoids | |
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| Cartap | |
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| Calcium channels as possible targets for insecticides | |
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| Summary | |
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| Pesticides that act as signal molecules | |
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| Insect hormones | |
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| Insect endocrinology | |
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| Juvenile hormone | |
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| American paper towels | |
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| Juvenile hormone agonists as pesticides | |
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| Antagonists | |
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| Ecdysone | |
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| Phyto-ecdysones | |
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| Synthetic ecdysteroids used as insecticides | |
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| Azadirachtin | |
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| Behavior-modifying pesticides | |
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| Definitions | |
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| Pheromones | |
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| Structure-activity relationships | |
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| Alarm and trail pheromones | |
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| Aggregation pheromones | |
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| Pheromones used as pesticides and lures | |
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| Coleoptera | |
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| Lepidoptera | |
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| Fruit flies | |
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| Aphid food deterrent | |
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| Mosquito repellents | |
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| Plant hormones | |
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| Translocation and degradation of pesticides | |
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| The compartment model | |
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| The bioconcentration factor | |
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| The half-life | |
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| The area under the curve | |
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| Example | |
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| Disappearance of dieldrin in sheep | |
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| Dieldrin uptake in sheep | |
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| Degradation of pesticides by microorganisms | |
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| Degradation by adaption | |
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| Degradation by co-metabolism | |
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| Kinetics of degradation | |
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| Importance of chemical structure for degradation | |
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| Examples | |
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| Co-metabolism and adaptation | |
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| Parathion and other pesticides with nitro groups | |
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| Ester hydrolysis of carbaryl | |
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| Mineralization of dalapon | |
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| The degraders | |
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| Soil adsorption | |
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| Why are chemicals adsorbed? | |
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| Examples | |
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| Measurements of adsorption | |
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| Desorption | |
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| Evaporation | |
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| Example | |
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| Biotransformation in animals | |
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| Oxidation | |
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| Epoxide hydrolase | |
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| Glutathione transferase | |
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| Hydrolases | |
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| Glucoronosyltransferase and sulfotransferase | |
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| Stereospecific biotransformation | |
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| Designing pesticides that have low mammalian toxicity | |
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| Acephate | |
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| Malathion and dimethoate | |
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| Nereistoxin | |
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| Resistance to pesticides | |
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| Definitions | |
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| Resistance is an inevitable result of evolution | |
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| Time for resistance development | |
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| Questions about resistance | |
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| Are resistant insects more robust than sensitive ones? | |
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| Is resistance caused by one allele in one gene locus? | |
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| Do pesticides cause resistance? | |
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| Biochemical mechanisms | |
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| Increased detoxication | |
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| DDT dehydrochlorinase | |
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| Hydrolases | |
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| CYP enzymes in insects | |
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| CYP enzymes in plants | |
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| Insensitive target enzyme or target receptor site | |
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| Acetylcholinesterase | |
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| kdr resistance | |
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| Resistance in fungi | |
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| Benzimidazole | |
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| Sterol biosynthesis inhibitors | |
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| Atrazine resistance and plants made resistant by genetic engineering | |
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| Resistance to glyphosate | |
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| Summary | |
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| Resistance to older biocides used as pesticides | |
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| Resistance to third- and fourth-generation pesticides | |
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| How to delay development of resistance | |
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| Refuge strategy | |
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| Mixing pesticides with different modes of action and different detoxication patterns | |
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| Switching life-stage target | |
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| Increased sensitivity in resistant pests | |
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| Inhibition of detoxication enzymes | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Pesticides as environmental hazards | |
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| Pesticides are poisons | |
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| Pesticides are xenobiotics | |
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| Various types of bias | |
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| Publication bias | |
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| Test bias | |
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| Extrapolation bias | |
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| Benchmark values | |
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| Required toxicological tests for official approval of a pesticide | |
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| Analysis of residues in food and the environment | |
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| Definitions | |
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| Sampling | |
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| Sample preparation | |
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| Analysis | |
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| Chromatographic methods | |
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| Biological methods | |
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| Pesticide residues in food | |
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| Toxicity classification of pesticides | |
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| Classification of carcinogenecity | |
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| Definitions of ADI and NOEL and tolerance limits | |
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| ADI | |
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| NOEL | |
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| Residue tolerance limits | |
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| Comparing health hazards of pesticides with other toxicants present in the market basket | |
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| Elixirs of death | |
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| Nomenclature and structure of dixoins | |
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| Dioxins in pesticides | |
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| Vietnam | |
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| Presence of dioxins in pesticides in general | |
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| Toxicology | |
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| The target | |
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| Dioxin and metabolism of caffeine | |
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| Analysis | |
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| Saturday, 12:30, July 10, 1976 | |
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| Summary | |
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| Angry bird-watchers, youth criminals, and impotent rats | |
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| Clear Lake | |
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| Peregrine falcons and other birds of prey | |
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| Borlaug's warning | |
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| DDT and impotence? | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Literature | |
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| Index | |