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| A Brief Introduction to Citric Acid Biotechnology | |
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| Citric acid from lemons | |
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| Synthetic citric acid | |
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| Microbial citric acid | |
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| Citric acid by the surface method | |
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| The submerged process for production of citric acid | |
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| Continuous and immobilized processes | |
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| Yeast based processes | |
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| The koji process | |
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| Uses of citric acid | |
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| Effluent disposal | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| References | |
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| Biochemistry of Citric Acid Accumulation by Aspergillus niger | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Glucose catabolism in A. niger and its regulation | |
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| Regulation of citric acid biosynthesis | |
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| Role of citrate breakdown in citrate accumulation | |
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| Export of citric acid from A. niger | |
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| References | |
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| Biochemistry of Citric Acid Production by Yeasts | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Synthesis of citric acid from n-alkanes | |
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| Synthesis of citric acid from glucose | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| References | |
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| Strain Improvement | |
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| Introduction | |
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| General aspects of strain improvement | |
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| Isolation of recombinant strains using the parasexual cycle in A. niger | |
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| Genetic engineering | |
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| Concluding remarks | |
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| Acknowledgements | |
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| References | |
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| Fungal Morphology | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Factors affecting Aspergillus niger morphology in submerged culture | |
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| Effect of agitation | |
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| Effect of nutritional factors | |
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| Effect of inoculum | |
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| Conclusions and perspectives | |
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| References | |
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| Redox Potential in Submerged Citric Acid Fermentation | |
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| Nomenclature | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Overview | |
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| Theory | |
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| Measurement of redox potential | |
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| Significance of redox potential | |
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| Redox potential in citric acid fermentation | |
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| Regulation of the redox potential | |
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| Regulation of redox potential in citric acid fermentation | |
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| Scale-up based on redox potential | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| References | |
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| Modelling the Fermentation Process | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Aspergillus based models | |
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| Yeast based models | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| Mass and Energy Balance | |
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| Nomenclature | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Metabolic description of A. niger growth | |
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| Mass and energy balances | |
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| Kinetics of growth and citric acid production by A. niger | |
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| Carbon and available electron balances | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| Downstream Processing in Citric Acid Production | |
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| Pretreatment of fermentation broth | |
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| Precipitation | |
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| Solvent extraction | |
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| Adsorption, absorption and ion exchange | |
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| Liquid membranes | |
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| Electrodialysis | |
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| Ultrafiltration | |
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| Immobilization of micro-organisms | |
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| References | |
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| Fermentation Substrates | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Molasses | |
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| Refined or raw sucrose | |
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| Syrups | |
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| Starch | |
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| Hydrol | |
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| Alkanes | |
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| Oils and fats | |
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| Cellulose | |
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| Other medium redients | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| Design of an Industrial Plant | |
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| Nomenclature | |
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| Design of an industrial plant | |
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| Data required | |
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| Design basis | |
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| Scope definition | |
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| Process package | |
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| Raw material | |
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| Substrate preparation | |
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| Fermentation | |
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| Design of a stirred tank reactor | |
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| Airlift and bubble column reactors | |
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| Product isolation | |
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| Cell removal | |
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| Purification | |
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| Crystallization stages | |
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| Product packaging | |
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| Effluent and by-products | |
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| In conclusion | |
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| References | |
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| Index | |