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| Membranes, Particles, and Potentials | |
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| Complex System Approach | |
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| The Biological Membrane | |
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| Movement in a Solution | |
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| Concentration of Water: Osmosis | |
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| Movement of Ions: The Nernst Equation | |
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| Action Potential | |
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| Creation of Membrane Potential | |
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| Basic Features of Action Potential | |
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| Mechanism of Generation of Action Potential | |
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| Information Conduction and Transmission | |
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| Conduction of Action Potential | |
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| Myelinated Fibers | |
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| The Structure of Neuron | |
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| Information Coding in the Nervous System | |
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| Synaptic Transmission | |
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| Neurotransmitters | |
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| Temporal and Spatial Summation | |
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| Skeletal Muscle | |
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| Skeletal muscle: Structure | |
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| Myofilaments | |
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| Neuromuscular Synapse | |
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| Mechanism of Contraction | |
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| Types of Muscle Contraction | |
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| Elements of Mechanics | |
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| Force-Length and Force-Velocity Relations | |
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| External Regimes of Muscle Contraction | |
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| Receptors | |
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| General Classification and Properties of Receptors | |
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| Muscle Spindles | |
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| The Gamma System | |
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| Golgi Tendon Organs | |
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| Other Muscle Receptors | |
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| Articular Receptors | |
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| Cutaneous Receptors | |
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| Where Does the Information Go? | |
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| Motor Units and Electromyography | |
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| The Notion of Motor Unit | |
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| Fast and Slow Motor Units | |
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| The Henneman Principle (the Size Principle) | |
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| Functional Role of Motor Units | |
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| Electromyography | |
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| Filtering, Rectification, and Integration | |
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| Problems | |
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| Connections | |
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| Excitation and Inhibition Within the Spinal Cord | |
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| The Spinal Cord | |
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| Excitation Within the Central Nervous System | |
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| Postsynaptic Inhibition | |
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| Renshaw Cells | |
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| Ia-Interneurons | |
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| Presynaptic Inhibition | |
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| Persistent Inward Current | |
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| Monosynaptic Reflexes | |
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| Reflexes | |
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| Reflex Arc | |
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| H- and T-Reflexes and M-Response | |
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| Effects of Voluntary Muscle Activation on Monosynaptic Reflexes | |
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| F-Wave | |
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| Oligosynaptic and Polysynaptic Reflexes | |
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| Oligosynaptic Reflexes | |
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| Polysynaptic Reflexes | |
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| Flexor Reflex | |
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| Tonic Stretch Reflex | |
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| Tonic Vibration Reflex | |
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| Interaction Among Reflex Pathways | |
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| Interjoint and Interlimb Reflexes | |
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| Voluntary Control of a Single Muscle | |
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| Feedforward and Feedback Control | |
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| Servo Control | |
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| The Servo-Hypothesis | |
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| Alpha-Gamma Coactivation | |
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| Voluntary Activation of Muscles | |
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| Equilibrium-Point Control | |
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| Patterns of Single-Joint Movements | |
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| Isotonic Movements and Isometric Contractions | |
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| Performance and Task Parameters | |
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| EMG Patterns During Single-Joint Isotonic Movements | |
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| EMG Patterns During Single-Joint Isometric Contractions | |
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| The Dual-Strategy Hypothesis | |
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| Preprogrammed Reactions | |
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| Preprogrammed Reactions | |
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| Preprogrammed Reaction Is not a Stretch Reflex | |
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| In Search of the Afferent Source of Preprogrammed Reactions | |
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| Preprogrammed Reactions During Movement Perturbations | |
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| Basic Features of Preprogrammed Reactions | |
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| Preprogrammed Corrections of Vertical Posture | |
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| Corrective Stumbling Reaction | |
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| Problems | |
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| Structures | |
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| Elements of the Brain Anatomy | |
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| Single-Neuron Recording | |
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| Electroencephalography | |
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| Evoked Potentials | |
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| Radiography | |
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| Computerized Tomography | |
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| Positron Emission Tomography | |
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| Magnetic Resonance Imaging | |
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| Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging | |
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| Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation | |
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| Neuroanatomical Tracing | |
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| Major Brain Structures | |
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| Cerebral Cortex | |
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| Cerebral Hemispheres | |
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| Structure of the Cerebral Cortex | |
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| Primary Motor and Premotor Areas | |
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| Inputs to Motor Cortex | |
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| Outputs of Motor Cortex | |
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| Preparation for a Voluntary Movement | |
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| Neuronal Population Vectors | |
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| What Variables May Be Encoded in the Cortical Neuronal Activity? | |
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| The Cerebellum | |
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| Anatomy of the Cerebellum | |
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| Cerebellar Inputs | |
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| Cerebellar Outputs | |
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| Relation of Cerebellar Activity to Voluntary Movement | |
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| Neuronal Population Vectors | |
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| The Effects of Cerebellar Lesions | |
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| The Basal Ganglia | |
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| Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia | |
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| Inputs and Outputs of the Basal Ganglia | |
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| |
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| Motor Circuits Involving the Basal Ganglia | |
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| Activity of Basal Ganglia During Movements | |
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| |
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| Effects of Lesions of the Basal Ganglia | |
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| |
| |
| Ascending and Descending Pathways | |
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| |
| |
| Basic Properties of Neural Pathways | |
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| |
| |
| Afferent Input to the Spinal Cord | |
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| |
| |
| Dorsal Column Pathway | |
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| Spinocervical Pathway | |
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| Spinothalamic Tract | |
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| |
| Spinocerebellar Tracts | |
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| Spinoreticular Tract | |
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| |
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| Pyramidal Tract | |
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| Rubrospinal Tract | |
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| Vestibulospinal Tracts | |
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| |
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| Reticulospinal Tracts and Other Descending Tracts | |
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| Propriospinal Tracts | |
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| Cranial Nerves | |
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| |
| |
| Memory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Descartes' Dualism and Cellular Mechanisms of Memory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Muscle Memory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Types of Memory and Learning | |
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| |
| |
| Habituation of Reflexes: An Example of Nonassociative Learning | |
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| |
| |
| Conditioned Reflexes: An Example of Associative Learning | |
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| |
| |
| Motor Learning | |
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| |
| |
| Short-Term and Long-Term Memory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Neuronal and Synaptic Mechanisms of Memory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Retrieval of Memory | |
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| |
| |
| Genetic Code as an Example of Memory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Plasticity in the Brain | |
| |
| |
| |
| Korsakoff Syndrome | |
| |
| |
| |
| Possible Role of Hippocampus and Cerebellum in Memory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spinal Memory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Behaviors: Control and Coordination | |
| |
| |
| |
| General Issues of Motor Control | |
| |
| |
| |
| Design of the Human Body: A Source of Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Force Control | |
| |
| |
| |
| Engrams and the Generalized Motor Program | |
| |
| |
| |
| Internal Models | |
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| |
| |
| The Equilibrium-Point Hypothesis: The Main Ideas | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Equilibrium-Point Hypothesis: More Subtle Points | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dynamic Systems Approach | |
| |
| |
| |
| Motor Synergies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Motor Redundancy Problem | |
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| |
| |
| Optimization Approaches | |
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| |
| |
| Principle of Abundance | |
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| |
| |
| Structural Units and Synergies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Studies of Motor Synergies: Principal Component Analysis | |
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| |
| |
| Uncontrolled Manifold Hypothesis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Postural Control | |
| |
| |
| |
| Vertical Posture | |
| |
| |
| |
| Postural Sway | |
| |
| |
| |
| Vestibular System | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Role of Vision in Postural Control | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Role of Proprioception in Postural Control | |
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| |
| |
| Anticipatory Postural Adjustments | |
| |
| |
| |
| Corrective Postural Reactions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Postural Synergies | |
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| |
| |
| Locomotion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Two Approaches to Locomotion | |
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| |
| |
| Central Pattern Generator | |
| |
| |
| |
| Locomotor Centers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spinal Locomotion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spinal Control of Locomotion in Humans | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gait Patterns | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dynamic Pattern Generation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Step Initiation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Corrective Stumbling Reaction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Multijoint Movement | |
| |
| |
| |
| General Features of Targeted Reaching Movements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Major Problems of Controlling Natural Reaching Movements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Interjoint Reflexes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spinal Mechanisms of Multijoint Coordination | |
| |
| |
| |
| Supraspinal Mechanisms | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Equilibrium-Trajectory Hypothesis | |
| |
| |
| |
| What Is Controlled During Multijoint Movements? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Prehension | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hand Joints and Muscles | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cortical Representations of the Hand | |
| |
| |
| |
| Indices of Finger Interaction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Multifinger Synergies in Pressing Tasks | |
| |
| |
| |
| Grasping | |
| |
| |
| |
| Prehension Synergies and the Principle of Superposition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Eye Movement and Vision | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Eye | |
| |
| |
| |
| Photoreceptors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Retina and Optic Nerve | |
| |
| |
| |
| Oculomotor Control | |
| |
| |
| |
| Central Mechanisms of Visual Perception | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Role of Visual Information in Voluntary Movements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Kinesthesia | |
| |
| |
| |
| Which Physical Variables Are Sensed by Proprioceptors? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Peripheral Sources of Kinesthetic Information | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Role of the Motor Command in Kinesthesia | |
| |
| |
| |
| Where Does the Information Go? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Kinesthetic Illusions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pain | |
| |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Evolving | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Fatigue | |
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| |
| |
| Fatigue and Its Contributors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Muscular Mechanisms of Fatigue | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spinal Mechanisms of Fatigue | |
| |
| |
| |
| Supraspinal Mechanisms of Fatigue | |
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| |
| |
| Adaptive Changes During Fatigue | |
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| |
| |
| Abnormal Fatigue | |
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| |
| |
| Effects of Aging | |
| |
| |
| |
| General Features of Movements in Elderly | |
| |
| |
| |
| Changes in Muscles and Motor units With Age | |
| |
| |
| |
| Muscle Reflexes in Elderly | |
| |
| |
| |
| Changes in the Sensory Function | |
| |
| |
| |
| Muscle Activation Patterns During Fast Movements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Changes in Posture and Gait with Age | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hand Function in Elderly | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adaptive Changes in Motor Patterns | |
| |
| |
| |
| Effects of Training | |
| |
| |
| |
| Typical and Atypical Development | |
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| |
| |
| Humans at Birth | |
| |
| |
| |
| Motor Milestones During Typical Development | |
| |
| |
| |
| Exploration and Emergent Motor Patterns | |
| |
| |
| |
| Down Syndrome | |
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| |
| |
| Effects of Practice in Down Syndrome | |
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| |
| |
| Autism | |
| |
| |
| |
| Development Coordination Disorder | |
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| |
| |
| Motor Disorders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Peripheral Muscular and Neurological Disorders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Myopathies and Neuropathies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Muscular Dystrophies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Continuous Muscle Fiber Activity Syndromes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Myasthenia Gravis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Peripheral Neuropathies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Motor Disorders Associated With Diabetes | |
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| |
| |
| Radiculopathies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spinal Cord Injury and Spasticity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Consequence of Spinal Cord Injury | |
| |
| |
| |
| Signs and Symptoms of Spasticity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Possible Mechanisms of Spasticity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Treatment of Spasticity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Multiple Sclerosis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Disorders Involving the Basal Ganglia | |
| |
| |
| |
| Clinical Features of Parkinson's Disease | |
| |
| |
| |
| Voluntary Movements in Parkinson's Disease | |
| |
| |
| |
| Changes in Postural Control and Locomotion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Treatment of Parkinson's Disease | |
| |
| |
| |
| Huntington's Chorea | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hemiballismus | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dystonia | |
| |
| |
| |
| Tardive Diskinesia | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cerebellar Disorders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Consequences of Cerebellar Injuries in Animals | |
| |
| |
| |
| Causes of Cerebellar Disorders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Abnormalities of Stance and Gait | |
| |
| |
| |
| Voluntary Movements in Cerebellar Disorders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cerebellar Tremor | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ataxias | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cerebellar Cognitive Affective Syndrome | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cortical Disorders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Consequences of Lesions of Cortical Lobes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stroke | |
| |
| |
| |
| Myoclonus | |
| |
| |
| |
| Essential Tremor | |
| |
| |
| |
| Tics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Tourette's Syndrome | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cerebral Palsy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Williams Syndrome | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wilson's Disease | |
| |
| |
| |
| Implications for Motor Rehabilitation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Do "Normal Movements" Exist? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Back to the Problem of Structural Units and Synergies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Changes in CNS Priorities | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Role of CNS Plasticity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adaptive Changes in Motor Patterns of Atypical Individuals | |
| |
| |
| |
| Amputation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Practical Considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Problems | |
| |
| |
| Laboratories | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
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| |
| |
| |
| |
| Glossary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Subject index | |