| |
| |
| |
| Organic Chemistry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Saturated Hydrocarbons Organic and Inorganic Compounds | |
| |
| |
| Bonding Characteristics of the Carbon Atom | |
| |
| |
| Hydrocarbons and Hydrocarbon Derivatives | |
| |
| |
| Alkanes: Acyclic Saturated Hydrocarbons | |
| |
| |
| Structural Formulas | |
| |
| |
| Alkane Isomerism | |
| |
| |
| Conformations of Alkanes | |
| |
| |
| IUPAC Nomenclature for Alkanes | |
| |
| |
| Line-Angle Formulas for Alkanes | |
| |
| |
| Classification of Carbon Atoms | |
| |
| |
| Branched-Chain Alkyl Groups | |
| |
| |
| Cycloalkanes | |
| |
| |
| IUPAC Nomenclature for Cycloalkanes | |
| |
| |
| Isomerism in Cycloalkanes | |
| |
| |
| Sources of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes | |
| |
| |
| Physical Properties of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Properties of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Properties of Alkanes and Cycloalkanes | |
| |
| |
| Nomenclature and Properties of Halogenated Alkanes | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections | |
| |
| |
| The Occurrence of Methane | |
| |
| |
| The Physiological Effects of Alkanes | |
| |
| |
| Chlorofluorocarbons and the Ozone Layer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Unsaturated Hydrocarbons | |
| |
| |
| Unsaturated Hydrocarbons | |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of Alkenes and Cycloalkenes | |
| |
| |
| Names for Alkenes and Cycloalkenes | |
| |
| |
| Line-Angle Formulas for Alkenes | |
| |
| |
| Isomerism in Alkenes | |
| |
| |
| Naturally Occurring Alkenes | |
| |
| |
| Physical Properties of Alkenes | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Reactions of Alkenes | |
| |
| |
| Polymerization of Alkenes: Addition Polymers | |
| |
| |
| Alkynes | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Chemical Reactions of Alkenes | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: IUPAC Nomenclature for Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes | |
| |
| |
| Aromatic Hydrocarbons | |
| |
| |
| Names for Aromatic Hydrocarbons | |
| |
| |
| Aromatic Hydrocarbons: Physical Properties and Sources | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Reactions of Aromatic Hydrocarbons | |
| |
| |
| Fused-Ring Aromatic Compounds | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections | |
| |
| |
| Ethene: A Plant Hormone and High-Volume Industrial Chemical | |
| |
| |
| Cis-Trans Isomerism and Vision | |
| |
| |
| Carotenoids: A Source of Color | |
| |
| |
| Fused-Ring Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Cancer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Alcohols, Phenols, and Ethers Bonding Characteristics of Oxygen Atoms in Organic Compounds | |
| |
| |
| Structural Characteristics of Alcohols | |
| |
| |
| Nomenclature for Alcohols | |
| |
| |
| Isomerism for Alcohols | |
| |
| |
| Important Commonly Encountered Alcohols | |
| |
| |
| Physical Properties of Alcohols | |
| |
| |
| Preparation of Alcohols | |
| |
| |
| Classification of Alcohols | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Reactions of Alcohols | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Summary of Chemical Reactions Involving Alcohols | |
| |
| |
| Polymeric Alcohols | |
| |
| |
| Structural Characteristics of Phenols | |
| |
| |
| Nomenclature for Phenols | |
| |
| |
| Physical and Chemical Properties of Phenols | |
| |
| |
| Occurrence of and Uses for Phenols | |
| |
| |
| Structural Characteristics of Ethers | |
| |
| |
| Nomenclature for Ethers | |
| |
| |
| Isomerism for Ethers | |
| |
| |
| Physical and Chemical Properties of Ethers | |
| |
| |
| Cyclic Ethers | |
| |
| |
| Sulfur Analogs and Alcohols | |
| |
| |
| Sulfur Analogs of Ethers | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections | |
| |
| |
| Menthol: A Useful Naturally Occurring Terpene Alcohol | |
| |
| |
| Ethers as General Anesthetics | |
| |
| |
| Marijuana: The Most Commonly Used Illicit Drug | |
| |
| |
| Garlic and Onions: Odiferous Medicinal Plants | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aldehydes and Ketones | |
| |
| |
| The Carbonyl Group | |
| |
| |
| Structure of Aldehydes and Ketones | |
| |
| |
| Nomenclature for Aldehydes | |
| |
| |
| Nomenclature for Ketones | |
| |
| |
| Isomerism for Aldehydes and Ketones | |
| |
| |
| Selected Common Aldehydes and Ketones | |
| |
| |
| Physical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones | |
| |
| |
| Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones | |
| |
| |
| Oxidation and Reduction of Aldehydes and Ketones | |
| |
| |
| Reaction of Aldehydes and Ketones with Alcohols | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Summary of Chemical Reactions Involving Aldehydes and Ketones | |
| |
| |
| Formaldehyde-Based Polymers | |
| |
| |
| Sulfur-Containing Carbonyl Groups | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections | |
| |
| |
| Lachrymatory Aldehydes and Ketones | |
| |
| |
| Melanin: A Hair and Skin Pigment | |
| |
| |
| Diabetes, Aldehyde Oxidation, and Glucose Testing | |
| |
| |
| |
| Carboxylic Acids, Esters, and Other Acid Derivatives | |
| |
| |
| Structure of Carboxylic Acids and Their Derivatives | |
| |
| |
| IUPAC Nomenclature for Carboxylic Acids | |
| |
| |
| Common Names for Carboxylic Acids | |
| |
| |
| Polyfunctional Carboxylic Acids | |
| |
| |
| "Metabolic" Acids | |
| |
| |
| Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids | |
| |
| |
| Preparation of Carboxylic Acids | |
| |
| |
| Acidity of Carboxylic Acids | |
| |
| |
| Carboxylic Acid Salts | |
| |
| |
| Structure of Esters | |
| |
| |
| Preparation of Esters | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Summary of the "H Versus R" Relationship for Pairs of Hydrocarbon Derivatives | |
| |
| |
| Nomenclature for Esters | |
| |
| |
| Selected Common Esters | |
| |
| |
| Isomerism for Carboxylic Acids and Esters | |
| |
| |
| Physical Properties of Esters | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Reactions of Esters | |
| |
| |
| Sulfur Analogs of Esters | |
| |
| |
| Polyesters | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Summary of Chemical Reactions Involving Carboxylic Acids and Esters | |
| |
| |
| Acid Chlorides and Acid Anhydrides | |
| |
| |
| Esters and Anhydrides of Inorganic Acids | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections | |
| |
| |
| Nonprescription Pain Relievers Derived from Propanoic Acid | |
| |
| |
| Carboxylic Acids and Skin Care | |
| |
| |
| Aspirin | |
| |
| |
| Nitroglycerin: An Inorganic Triester | |
| |
| |
| |
| Amines and Amides | |
| |
| |
| Bonding Characteristics of Nitrogen Atoms in Organic Compounds | |
| |
| |
| Structure and Classification of Amines | |
| |
| |
| Nomenclature for Amines | |
| |
| |
| Isomerism for Amines | |
| |
| |
| Physical Properties of Amines | |
| |
| |
| Basicity of Amines | |
| |
| |
| Amine Salts | |
| |
| |
| Heterocyclic Amines | |
| |
| |
| Selected Biochemically Important Amines | |
| |
| |
| Alkaloids | |
| |
| |
| Structure and Classification of Amides | |
| |
| |
| Nomenclature for Amides | |
| |
| |
| Selected Amides and Their Uses | |
| |
| |
| Properties of Amides | |
| |
| |
| Preparation of Amides | |
| |
| |
| Hydrolysis of Amides | |
| |
| |
| Polyamides and Polyurethanes | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Summary of Chemical Reactions Involving Amines and Amides | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections | |
| |
| |
| Caffeine: The Most Widely Used Central Nervous System Stimulant | |
| |
| |
| Amphetamines: Central Nervous System Stimulants | |
| |
| |
| Alkaloids Present in Chocolate | |
| |
| |
| Acetaminophen: A Substituted Amide | |
| |
| |
| |
| Biological Chemistry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Carbohydrates | |
| |
| |
| Biochemistry--An Overview | |
| |
| |
| Occurrence and Functions of Carbohydrates | |
| |
| |
| Classification of Carbohydrates | |
| |
| |
| Chirality: Handedness in Molecules | |
| |
| |
| Stereoisomerism: Enantiomers and Diastereomers | |
| |
| |
| Designating Handedness Using Fischer Projections | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Constitutional Isomers and Stereoisomers | |
| |
| |
| Properties of Enantiomers | |
| |
| |
| Classification of Monosaccharides | |
| |
| |
| Biochemically Important Monosaccharides | |
| |
| |
| Cyclic Forms of Monosaccharides | |
| |
| |
| Haworth Projection Formulas | |
| |
| |
| Reactions of Monosaccharides | |
| |
| |
| Disaccharides | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: "Sugar Terminology" Associated with Monosaccharides and Their Derivatives | |
| |
| |
| General Characteristics of Polysaccharides | |
| |
| |
| Storage Polysaccharides | |
| |
| |
| Structural Polysaccharides | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Types of Glycosidic Linkages for Common Glucose-Containing Di- and Polysaccharides | |
| |
| |
| Acidic Polysaccharides | |
| |
| |
| Glycolipids and Glycoproteins | |
| |
| |
| Dietary Considerations and Carbohydrates | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections | |
| |
| |
| Blood Types and Monosaccharides | |
| |
| |
| Lactose Intolerance and Galactosemia | |
| |
| |
| Artifical Sweeteners; "Good and Bad Carbs": The Glycemic Index | |
| |
| |
| |
| Lipids | |
| |
| |
| Structure and Classification of Lipids | |
| |
| |
| Fatty Acids: Lipid Building Blocks | |
| |
| |
| Physical Properties of Fatty Acids | |
| |
| |
| Energy-Storage Lipids: Triacylglycerols | |
| |
| |
| Dietary Considerations and Triacylglycerols | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Reactions of Triacylglycerols | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Classification Schemes for Fatty Acid Residues Present in Triacylglycerols | |
| |
| |
| Membrane Lipids: Phospholipids | |
| |
| |
| Membrane Lipids: Sphingoglycolipids | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Terminology for and Structural | |
| |
| |
| Relationships Among Various | |
| |
| |
| Types of Fatty-Acid-Containing Lipids | |
| |
| |
| Membrane Lipids: Cholesterol | |
| |
| |
| Cell Membranes | |
| |
| |
| Emulsification Lipids: Bile Acids | |
| |
| |
| Messenger Lipids: Steroid Hormones | |
| |
| |
| Messenger Lipids: Eicosanoids | |
| |
| |
| Protective-Coating Lipids: Biological Waxes | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Types of Lipids and How They Function | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections | |
| |
| |
| The Fat Content of Tree Nuts and Peanuts | |
| |
| |
| Artificial Fat Substitutes | |
| |
| |
| The Cleansing Action of Soap | |
| |
| |
| Trans Fatty Acids and Blood Cholesterol Levels | |
| |
| |
| Steroid Drugs in Sports | |
| |
| |
| The Mode of Action for Anti-Inflammatory Drugs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Proteins Characteristics of Proteins | |
| |
| |
| Amino Acids: The Building Blocks for Proteins | |
| |
| |
| Chirality and Amino Acids | |
| |
| |
| Acid-Base Properties of Amino Acids | |
| |
| |
| Cysteine: A Chemically Unique Amino Acid | |
| |
| |
| Peptide Formation | |
| |
| |
| Biochemically Important Small Peptides | |
| |
| |
| General Structural Characteristics of Proteins | |
| |
| |
| Primary Structure of Proteins | |
| |
| |
| Secondary Structure of Proteins | |
| |
| |
| Tertiary Structure of Proteins | |
| |
| |
| Quaternary Structure of Proteins | |
| |
| |
| Fibrous and Globular Proteins | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Protein Structure | |
| |
| |
| Protein Hydrolysis | |
| |
| |
| Protein Denaturation | |
| |
| |
| Glycoproteins | |
| |
| |
| Lipoproteins | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections | |
| |
| |
| The Essential Amino Acids | |
| |
| |
| Substitutes for Human Insulin | |
| |
| |
| Protein Structure and the Color of Meat | |
| |
| |
| Denaturation and Human Hair | |
| |
| |
| Cyclosporine: An Antirejection Drug | |
| |
| |
| Lipoproteins and Heart Attack Risk | |
| |
| |
| |
| Enzymes and Vitamins | |
| |
| |
| General Characteristics of Enzymes | |
| |
| |
| Nomenclature and Classification of Enzymes | |
| |
| |
| Enzyme Structure | |
| |
| |
| Models of Enzyme Action | |
| |
| |
| Enzyme Specificity | |
| |
| |
| Factors That Affect Enzyme Activity | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Enzyme Activity | |
| |
| |
| Enzyme Inhibition | |
| |
| |
| Regulation of Enzyme Activity: Allosteric Enzymes | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Enzyme Inhibition | |
| |
| |
| Regulation of Enzyme Activity: Zymogens | |
| |
| |
| Antibiotics That Inhibit Enzyme Activity | |
| |
| |
| Medical Uses of Enzymes | |
| |
| |
| Vitamins | |
| |
| |
| Water-Soluble Vitamins | |
| |
| |
| Fat-Soluble Vitamins | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections | |
| |
| |
| H. pylori and Stomach Ulcers | |
| |
| |
| Enzymatic Browning: Discoloration of Fruits and Vegetables | |
| |
| |
| Heart Attacks and Enzyme Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nucleic Acids | |
| |
| |
| Types of Nucleic Acids | |
| |
| |
| Nucleotides: Building Blocks of Nucleic Acids | |
| |
| |
| Primary Nucleic Acid Structure | |
| |
| |
| The DNA Double Helix | |
| |
| |
| Replication of DNA Molecules | |
| |
| |
| Overview of Protein Synthesis | |
| |
| |
| Ribonucleic Acids | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: DNA Replication | |
| |
| |
| Transcription: RNA Synthesis | |
| |
| |
| The Genetic Code | |
| |
| |
| Anticodons and tRNA Molecules | |
| |
| |
| Translation: Protein Synthesis | |
| |
| |
| Mutations | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Protein Synthesis | |
| |
| |
| Nucleic Acids and Viruses | |
| |
| |
| Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering | |
| |
| |
| The Polymerase Chain Reaction | |
| |
| |
| DNA Sequencing | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections | |
| |
| |
| Use of Synthetic Nucleic Acid Bases in Medicine | |
| |
| |
| Antibiotics That Inhibit Bacterial Protein Synthesis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Biochemical Energy Production | |
| |
| |
| Metabolism | |
| |
| |
| Metabolism and Cell Structure | |
| |
| |
| Important Intermediate Compounds in Metabolic Pathways | |
| |
| |
| High-Energy Phosphate Compounds | |
| |
| |
| An Overview of Biochemical Energy Production | |
| |
| |
| The Citric Acid Cycle | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Simplified Summary of the Four Stages of Biochemical Energy Production | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Summary of the Reactions of the Citric Acid Cycle | |
| |
| |
| The Electron Transport Chain | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Summary of the Flow of Electrons | |
| |
| |
| Through the Four Complexes of the Electron Transport Chain | |
| |
| |
| Oxidative Phosphorylation | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Summary of the Common Metabolic Pathway | |
| |
| |
| ATP Production for the Common Metabolic Pathway | |
| |
| |
| The Importance of ATP | |
| |
| |
| Non-ETC Oxygen-Consuming Reactions | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections | |
| |
| |
| Cyanide Poisoning | |
| |
| |
| Brown Fat, Newborn Babies, and Hibernating Animals | |
| |
| |
| Flavonoids: An Important Class of Dietary Antioxidants | |
| |
| |
| |
| Carbohydrate Metabolism | |
| |
| |
| Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates | |
| |
| |
| Glycolysis | |
| |
| |
| Fates of Pyruvate | |
| |
| |
| ATP Production for the Complete Oxidation of Glucose | |
| |
| |
| Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation | |
| |
| |
| Gluconeogenesis and the Cori Cycle | |
| |
| |
| Terminology for Glucose Metabolic Pathways | |
| |
| |
| The Pentose Phosphate Pathway | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Glucose Metabolism | |
| |
| |
| Hormonal Control of Carbohydrate Metabolism | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections | |
| |
| |
| Lactate Accumulation | |
| |
| |
| Diabetes Mellitus | |
| |
| |
| |
| Lipid Metabolism | |
| |
| |
| Digestion and Absorption of Lipids | |
| |
| |
| Triacylglycerol Storage and Mobilization | |
| |
| |
| Glycerol Metabolism | |
| |
| |
| Oxidation of Fatty Acids | |
| |
| |
| ATP Production from Fatty Acid Oxidation | |
| |
| |
| Ketone Bodies | |
| |
| |
| Biosynthesis of Fatty Acids: Lipogenesis | |
| |
| |
| Biosynthesis of Cholesterol | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Interrelationships | |
| |
| |
| Between Carbohydrate and Lipid Metabolism | |
| |
| |
| Relationships Between Lipid and Carbohydrate Metabolism | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections | |
| |
| |
| High-Intensity Versus Low-Intensity Workouts | |
| |
| |
| Statins: Drugs That Lower Plasma Levels of Cholesterol | |
| |
| |
| |
| Protein Metabolism Protein Digestion and Absorption | |
| |
| |
| Amino Acid Utilization. ransamination and Oxidative Deamination | |
| |
| |
| The Urea Cycle | |
| |
| |
| Amino Acid Carbon Skeletons | |
| |
| |
| Amino Acid Biosynthesis | |
| |
| |
| Hemoglobin Catabolism | |
| |
| |
| Chemistry at a Glance: Interrelationships | |
| |
| |
| Among Lipid, Carbohydrate, and Protein Metabolism | |
| |
| |
| Interrelationships Among Metabolic Pathways | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Connections: The Chemical Composition of Urine | |
| |
| |
| Arginine, Citrulline, and the Chemical Messenger Nitric Oxide | |