| |
| |
Preface | |
| |
| |
A Note to Instructors | |
| |
| |
Acknowledgments | |
| |
| |
Introduction: What Is Philosophy? | |
| |
| |
The Nature of Philosophy | |
| |
| |
The Subject Matter of Philosophy | |
| |
| |
The Divisions of Philosophy | |
| |
| |
Historical Periods of Philosophy | |
| |
| |
The Method of Philosophy | |
| |
| |
The Elements of Critical Thinking | |
| |
| |
The Value of Philosophy | |
| |
| |
The Structure of This Text | |
| |
| |
Units | |
| |
| |
Worldviews | |
| |
| |
The tcapp Website | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
What Is an Argument? | |
| |
| |
Arguments | |
| |
| |
The Need For Arguments in Philosophy | |
| |
| |
Arguments in General | |
| |
| |
Inductive and Deductive Arguments | |
| |
| |
Analyzing Deductive Arguments | |
| |
| |
Types of Inductive Arguments | |
| |
| |
Rules for Evaluating Inductive Arguments | |
| |
| |
Judging the Adequacy of Theories | |
| |
| |
Universality | |
| |
| |
Consistency | |
| |
| |
Simplicity | |
| |
| |
Creative Thinking | |
| |
| |
Summary | |
| |
| |
Critical Thinking | |
| |
| |
Types of Arguments | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
Is It Reasonable to Believe That God Exists? | |
| |
| |
Introduction: Philosophy and Religion | |
| |
| |
| |
Basic Beliefs | |
| |
| |
The Concept of God | |
| |
| |
Examining Implications | |
| |
| |
Two Concepts of God | |
| |
| |
The Functional Concept of God | |
| |
| |
God and Worldviews | |
| |
| |
| |
The Problem | |
| |
| |
Possible Solutions | |
| |
| |
| |
Facts and Assumptions | |
| |
| |
Facts | |
| |
| |
Judging the Reliability of Facts | |
| |
| |
The Insufficiency of Facts in Philosophy | |
| |
| |
Assumptions | |
| |
| |
Points of View | |
| |
| |
| |
Arguments | |
| |
| |
Strong Theism | |
| |
| |
The Cosmological Argument | |
| |
| |
Science and The Origin of the Universe | |
| |
| |
The Design Argument | |
| |
| |
Religious Experience | |
| |
| |
Miracles | |
| |
| |
Strong Atheism | |
| |
| |
Science and Religion | |
| |
| |
The Problem of Evil | |
| |
| |
Agnosticism and Fideism | |
| |
| |
William James on Agnosticism and Fideism | |
| |
| |
Religion as Myth | |
| |
| |
Literal and Metaphorical Meanings | |
| |
| |
The Mythical Origins of Religion | |
| |
| |
Religion and Personal Growth | |
| |
| |
The Common Story of Various Religions | |
| |
| |
| |
Evaluation | |
| |
| |
Strong Theism and Strong Atheism | |
| |
| |
Agnosticism | |
| |
| |
Fideism | |
| |
| |
Religion as Myth | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
What Can I Know? | |
| |
| |
Introduction: Reliable Knowledge | |
| |
| |
| |
Basic Beliefs | |
| |
| |
The Definition of 'Knowledge' | |
| |
| |
Knowing How and Knowing That | |
| |
| |
Propositional Knowledge | |
| |
| |
Knowledge Requires Belief | |
| |
| |
Knowledge Requires Truth | |
| |
| |
Knowledge Requires Justification | |
| |
| |
Knowledge and Worldviews | |
| |
| |
| |
The Problem | |
| |
| |
The Origin, Extent, and Justification of Knowledge | |
| |
| |
Possible Solutions | |
| |
| |
Empiricism and Rationalism | |
| |
| |
The Philosophy of Kant | |
| |
| |
Pragmatism | |
| |
| |
The Scientific Method | |
| |
| |
Naive Realism | |
| |
| |
| |
Facts and Assumptions | |
| |
| |
Facts | |
| |
| |
Hallucinations and Illusions | |
| |
| |
Scientific Facts About Sensation and Perception | |
| |
| |
Perception Requires Sensation and Concepts | |
| |
| |
Perception Requires Belief | |
| |
| |
Perception as Representation | |
| |
| |
Assumptions | |
| |
| |
The Egocentric Predicament | |
| |
| |
Biases and Points of View | |
| |
| |
| |
Arguments | |
| |
| |
Descartes and Rationalism | |
| |
| |
The Method of Mathematics: The Search for Axioms | |
| |
| |
The Method of Doubt: Dreams and the Evil Genius | |
| |
| |
I Think, Therefore I Am | |
| |
| |
The Existence of the World | |
| |
| |
Descartes's Epistemology | |
| |
| |
The Justification of Knowledge | |
| |
| |
The Origin of Knowledge | |
| |
| |
The Extent of Knowledge | |
| |
| |
Locke and Empiricism | |
| |
| |
The Origin of Knowledge | |
| |
| |
The Justification of Knowledge | |
| |
| |
The Extent of Knowledge | |
| |
| |
Berkeley and Idealism | |
| |
| |
The Extent of Knowledge | |
| |
| |
Hume and Skepticism | |
| |
| |
The Origins of Knowledge | |
| |
| |
The Justification of Knowledge | |
| |
| |
The Extent of Knowledge | |
| |
| |
The Things We Cannot Know | |
| |
| |
The Things We Can Know | |
| |
| |
Kant's Revolution | |
| |
| |
Kant and Hume | |
| |
| |
Synthetic A Priori Statements | |
| |
| |
The "Copernican Revolution" | |
| |
| |
Innate Mechanisms of the Mind | |
| |
| |
The Universal and Necessary Conditions of Experience | |
| |
| |
Noumena and Phenomena | |
| |
| |
The Transcendental Deduction | |
| |
| |
Kant's Epistemology | |
| |
| |
| |
Evaluation | |
| |
| |
Descartes | |
| |
| |
The British Empiricists | |
| |
| |
Kant | |
| |
| |
Pragmatism | |
| |
| |
Scientific Realism | |
| |
| |
Final Suggestions | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
What Is Real? | |
| |
| |
Introduction: The Nature of Metaphysics | |
| |
| |
| |
Basic Beliefs | |
| |
| |
Our Commonsense Concept of Reality | |
| |
| |
The Concept of Space | |
| |
| |
The Concept of Time | |
| |
| |
Reality and Worldviews | |
| |
| |
| |
The Problem | |
| |
| |
Possible Solutions | |
| |
| |
| |
Facts and Assumptions | |
| |
| |
Facts | |
| |
| |
Assumptions | |
| |
| |
Biases | |
| |
| |
| |
Arguments | |
| |
| |
Commonsense Realism | |
| |
| |
The "Phone Call" Argument | |
| |
| |
The Linguistic Arguments | |
| |
| |
Scientific Realism | |
| |
| |
Various Types of Sciences | |
| |
| |
Reductionism in Science | |
| |
| |
Reality as an Ideal | |
| |
| |
Conceptual Frameworks | |
| |
| |
The Critique of Commonsense Realism | |
| |
| |
Rejection of the "Epistemological Dependency" Argument | |
| |
| |
The Commonsense World as Appearances | |
| |
| |
Sciences as a Superior Way of Knowing | |
| |
| |
The Limits of Commonsense Realism | |
| |
| |
The Scientific Method | |
| |
| |
Knowledge of Theoretical Entities | |
| |
| |
The Limits of Scientific Knowledge | |
| |
| |
Scientific Realism as Superior to Commonsense Realism | |
| |
| |
Constructivism | |
| |
| |
Constructivism and Pragmatism | |
| |
| |
Constructivism and Relativism | |
| |
| |
Constructivism and Kant | |
| |
| |
Meaning, Not Existence, Is Constructed | |
| |
| |
Reality Is Not Different for Each of Us: Reality as a Social Construct | |
| |
| |
Some Languages Are More Adequate Than Others | |
| |
| |
The Argument for Constructivism | |
| |
| |
| |
Evaluation | |
| |
| |
Areas of Agreement | |
| |
| |
Areas of Difference | |
| |
| |
Commonsense Realism | |
| |
| |
Scientific Realism | |
| |
| |
Constructivism | |
| |
| |
Social Entities and Natural Entities | |
| |
| |
Final Recommendations | |
| |
| |
Constructivism | |
| |
| |
Commonsense Realism | |
| |
| |
Scientific Realism | |
| |
| |
Metaphysics | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
What Kind of a Being Am I? | |
| |
| |
Introduction: Philosophy and Psychology | |
| |
| |
| |
Basic Beliefs | |
| |
| |
The Definition of 'Mind' | |
| |
| |
Minds and Worldviews | |
| |
| |
| |
The Problem | |
| |
| |
Possible Solutions | |
| |
| |
Your Solutions | |
| |
| |
Creative Thinking | |
| |
| |
Dualism | |
| |
| |
Descartes's Dualism | |
| |
| |
Materialism | |
| |
| |
Functionalism | |
| |
| |
| |
Facts and Assumptions | |
| |
| |
Facts Supporting Dualism | |
| |
| |
Mental Events Appear to Be Different from Physical Events | |
| |
| |
Incorrigibility | |
| |
| |
Privacy | |
| |
| |
Consciousness | |
| |
| |
Other Facts That Support Dualism | |
| |
| |
Facts Supporting Materialism | |
| |
| |
Maps of the Brain | |
| |
| |
Assumptions | |
| |
| |
Idealism | |
| |
| |
The New Mysterians | |
| |
| |
Buddhism and the Denial of the Self | |
| |
| |
Western Philosophy and the Denial of the Self | |
| |
| |
Points of View | |
| |
| |
| |
Arguments | |
| |
| |
Substance Dualism | |
| |
| |
The Good-Reasons Argument for Substance Dualism | |
| |
| |
Objections to Substance Dualism | |
| |
| |
Brain Functionalism | |
| |
| |
The Mind as a Processor of Information | |
| |
| |
The Mind Is Modular | |
| |
| |
The Argument for Brain Functionalism | |
| |
| |
Brain Functionalism Avoids the Problems of Other Views | |
| |
| |
Brain Functionalism Is Supported by Science | |
| |
| |
Brain Functionalism Explains the Facts of Our Mental Lives | |
| |
| |
Brain Functionalism Explains Substance Dualism Facts | |
| |
| |
Consciousness | |
| |
| |
Property Dualism | |
| |
| |
Epiphenomenalism | |
| |
| |
Interactionist Property Dualism | |
| |
| |
| |
Evaluation | |
| |
| |
Substance Dualism Offers No Explanations of the Mind | |
| |
| |
Criteria for Theory Acceptance | |
| |
| |
| |
An Adequate Theory Is Universal | |
| |
| |
| |
An Adequate Theory Is Consistent | |
| |
| |
| |
An Adequate Theory Is Simple | |
| |
| |
Materialism and Rule 1 | |
| |
| |
Property Dualism | |
| |
| |
Final Remarks: Metaphysical and Epistemological Property Dualism | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
What Is Right and What Is Good? | |
| |
| |
Introduction: Right and Wrong, Good and Evil | |
| |
| |
| |
Basic Beliefs | |
| |
| |
Value Theory | |
| |
| |
Moral and Nonmoral Values | |
| |
| |
Monistic and Pluralistic Theories of Value | |
| |
| |
Theories of Obligation | |
| |
| |
Moral Rules | |
| |
| |
Moral Principles | |
| |
| |
A Few More Concepts | |
| |
| |
Ethics and Worldviews | |
| |
| |
| |
The Problem | |
| |
| |
Possible Solutions | |
| |
| |
Consequentialism | |
| |
| |
Ethical Egoism | |
| |
| |
Utilitarianism | |
| |
| |
Deontology | |
| |
| |
The Ethics of Kant | |
| |
| |
Kant's Theory of Obligation | |
| |
| |
The Categorical Imperative: Rules Must Be Universal | |
| |
| |
The Second Formulation: Respect for Persons | |
| |
| |
The Third Formulation: Respect for Autonomy | |
| |
| |
Virtue Ethics | |
| |
| |
Virtues and Obligations | |
| |
| |
Aristotle: The Good Life | |
| |
| |
The Golden Mean | |
| |
| |
Other Ethical Theories | |
| |
| |
Do No Harm | |
| |
| |
The Ethics of Care | |
| |
| |
The Ethics of Rights | |
| |
| |
| |
Facts and Assumptions | |
| |
| |
Facts | |
| |
| |
Assumptions | |
| |
| |
Ethical Relativism | |
| |
| |
Freedom and Responsibility | |
| |
| |
| |
Arguments | |
| |
| |
Criteria for an Adequate Ethical Theory | |
| |
| |
Ethical Egoism | |
| |
| |
Psychological Egoism | |
| |
| |
The Role of Selfishness in Ethics | |
| |
| |
Utilitarianism | |
| |
| |
Act Utilitarianism | |
| |
| |
Rule Utilitarianism | |
| |
| |
The Ethics of Kant | |
| |
| |
Virtue Ethics | |
| |
| |
| |
Evaluation | |
| |
| |
Theory of Obligation | |
| |
| |
The Nature of Right Action | |
| |
| |
Moral Reasoning | |
| |
| |
"Good-Reasons" Arguments | |
| |
| |
Theory of Value | |
| |
| |
Moral Values | |
| |
| |
Values and Obligations | |
| |
| |
Final Remarks | |
| |
| |
Case Studies | |
| |
| |
| |
Cloning Human Beings | |
| |
| |
| |
Physician-Assisted Suicide | |
| |
| |
| |
Distributing Scarce Resources | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
What Is the Best Type of Society? | |
| |
| |
Introduction: The Individual and the State | |
| |
| |
| |
Basic Beliefs | |
| |
| |
The Best Type of Society Must Be Just | |
| |
| |
The Best Type of Society Has Limits to Its Legitimate Powers | |
| |
| |
Society and Worldviews | |
| |
| |
| |
The Problem | |
| |
| |
Possible Solutions | |
| |
| |
Plato | |
| |
| |
The Natural Law | |
| |
| |
Social Contract Theories | |
| |
| |
Social Utilitarianism | |
| |
| |
Marxism | |
| |
| |
Contemporary Views | |
| |
| |
Libertarianism | |
| |
| |
Socialism | |
| |
| |
Liberalism | |
| |
| |
| |
Facts and Assumptions | |
| |
| |
Facts | |
| |
| |
Types of Political Societies | |
| |
| |
Core Documents | |
| |
| |
Assumptions | |
| |
| |
Human Nature | |
| |
| |
Moral Relativism | |
| |
| |
Points of View | |
| |
| |
The Feminist Critique | |
| |
| |
| |
Arguments | |
| |
| |
Libertarianism | |
| |
| |
Liberty as the Highest Value | |
| |
| |
Unregulated Capitalism Preserves Liberty | |
| |
| |
Justice and Negative Rights | |
| |
| |
The "Rights" Argument | |
| |
| |
The Economic Argument | |
| |
| |
The "Bodyguard" Argument | |
| |
| |
The Best Type of Society | |
| |
| |
Socialism | |
| |
| |
Equality, Need, and Positive Rights | |
| |
| |
Types of Socialism | |
| |
| |
The Evils of Capitalism | |
| |
| |
The Ethical Argument | |
| |
| |
The Best Type of Society | |
| |
| |
Liberalism | |
| |
| |
Liberty and Equality | |
| |
| |
Positive and Negative Rights | |
| |
| |
Rawls: Justice as Fairness | |
| |
| |
The Best Type of Society | |
| |
| |
| |
Evaluation | |
| |
| |
Libertarianism | |
| |
| |
Socialism | |
| |
| |
Liberalism | |
| |
| |
The Communitarian Critique of Liberalism | |
| |
| |
Final Recommendations | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
How Is a Worldview Constructed? | |
| |
| |
Introduction: Worldviews | |
| |
| |
| |
Three Worldviews | |
| |
| |
The Nature of Worldviews | |
| |
| |
Theism | |
| |
| |
Basic Beliefs Compatible with the Theistic Worldview | |
| |
| |
Secondary Beliefs Compatible with the Theistic Worldview | |
| |
| |
Naturalism | |
| |
| |
Humanism | |
| |
| |
| |
Evaluating Worldviews | |
| |
| |
Criteria for Evaluating Worldviews | |
| |
| |
Worldviews Must Be Universal, Consistent, and Simple | |
| |
| |
Worldviews Must Be Psychologically Acceptable | |
| |
| |
Evaluating Theism, Naturalism, and Humanism | |
| |
| |
Internal Consistency and Simplicity | |
| |
| |
Universality | |
| |
| |
External Consistency | |
| |
| |
The Meaning of Life | |
| |
| |
Concluding Remarks | |
| |
| |
Glossary of Important Philosophical Terms | |
| |
| |
Index | |