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The Media: An Introduction | |
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A Brief History of the Mass Media | |
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The Mass Media: Social Systems | |
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The Role of Mass Media Advertising | |
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The Audience | |
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Media and Measurement | |
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Television | |
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Radio | |
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Newspapers | |
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Magazines | |
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The Internet | |
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The New Media Environment | |
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Twenty-Four-Hour News | |
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Changing Influence of the Press | |
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To Sum Up | |
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Selected Readings | |
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What Is News? | |
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Hard News Defined | |
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Hard News Is Personalized, about Individuals | |
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Hard News Is Dramatic, Conflict-Filled, and Violent | |
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Hard News Is Action, an Event, an Identifiable Occurrence | |
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Hard News Is Novel, Deviant, Out of the Ordinary | |
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Hard News Reports Events Linked to Issues Prevalent in the News at the Time | |
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What Is Covered and Reported | |
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Audience Interest | |
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External Constraints | |
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Internal Constraints | |
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Changing News Norms | |
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Relevance to Governance or Abuse of Power | |
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Public Display | |
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Hypocrisy Forecast | |
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Hypocrisy Added | |
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Statute of Limitations | |
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Lying and Recency | |
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Hypocrisy Broadly Construed | |
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How the Story Is Presented | |
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Reporter Expertise | |
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Fairness and Balance | |
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Story Length | |
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Story Structure | |
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Objectivity | |
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To Sum Up | |
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Selected Readings | |
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News as Persuasion | |
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Dramatizing and Sensationalizing Content | |
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The Screen | |
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The Camera | |
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Special Effects | |
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Editing | |
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Filmed and Taped Coverage | |
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Anchors and On-Air Reporters | |
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Inaccurate and Incomplete Reporting | |
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Deadlines and Competition | |
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Breaking News | |
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Exclusive Breaking News | |
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Story Structure | |
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Anonymous and Composite Sources, Misrepresented Tape | |
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Readers' Advocates | |
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News Analysis | |
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Media Convergence | |
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Unbalanced Interpretation | |
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Insinuation through Selection of Language | |
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Ideological Bias | |
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Self-Censorship | |
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Direct Intervention | |
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Breaches of Neutrality | |
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Producing Social Change | |
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Journalists as Direct Participants | |
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The Civic Journalism Movement | |
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To Sum Up | |
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Analysis: Analyzing a News Item | |
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Newsworthiness | |
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Reporter | |
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The News Story | |
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Constraints | |
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Framing | |
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Inclusion/Exclusion | |
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Setting | |
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Timing | |
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Placement | |
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Patterns | |
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Manipulation | |
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Impact | |
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Selected Readings | |
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Influencing the News Media | |
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Influencing Journalistic Norms and Routines | |
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Manipulating Deadlines | |
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Manipulating Access | |
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Setting Up a Controlled Channel | |
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Manipulating News Assignments | |
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Media Competition | |
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Using Access to Media to Manipulate the Agenda | |
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Expanded Opportunities for Direct Address | |
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Language and Symbols | |
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The Perils of Live Coverage | |
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Prepackaged News | |
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Commercial Pressures | |
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Costs of Preempting Programming | |
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Pressure from Advertisers | |
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Threat of Lawsuits | |
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Political Pressure | |
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Presidential Newsworthiness | |
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National Security | |
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Government Manipulation | |
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To Sum Up | |
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Selected Readings | |
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How Corporate Power Influences What We See | |
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A Brief History of Media Consolidation | |
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A Focus on Profits | |
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Staff Cuts | |
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Reduction in Serious Political Content That Draws Low Audiences | |
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To Attract Audiences, Definition of News Shifts toward Human Interest | |
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Loss of News That Is of Local but Not Regional or National Interest | |
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Magnified Pro-Business Message While Minimizing Scrutiny of Parent Corporations | |
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Cross-Promotion: Synergy | |
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Fewer Voices Providing News | |
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To Sum Up | |
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Selected Readings | |
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What Is Advertising? | |
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Defining Advertising | |
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Shifting Ad Placement | |
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Product Placement | |
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Blurring Program and Ad Content | |
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Incentives to View Ads | |
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Mediated Advertising | |
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Kinds of Traditional Mass Media Advertising | |
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Product Ads | |
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The Product as Ad | |
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Service Ads | |
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Goodwill Ads | |
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Advocacy Ads | |
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Direct-Response Ads (Infomercials) | |
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Public Service Announcements | |
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Political Ads | |
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Issue Advocacy Ads | |
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Nontraditional Advertising | |
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In-Store Advertising | |
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Digital Billboards | |
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Search Advertising | |
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How to Determine Whether It's an Ad | |
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How Ads Reveal the Advertiser | |
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How Ads Reveal the Intended Audience | |
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Advertising and Reality: Stereotypes | |
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Advertising Values | |
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The World According to Commercials | |
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Seeing the Other Side | |
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The Interplay of News and Advertising | |
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To Sum Up | |
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Selected Reading | |
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Persuasion Through Advertising | |
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The Advertiser's Aims | |
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Creating Product Recognition | |
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Trademarks | |
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Naming | |
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Packaging | |
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Slogans | |
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Differentiation | |
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Unique Selling Proposition | |
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Association | |
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Participation | |
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Disentangling Meaning | |
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Identification with Ad Characters | |
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Significant Experiences | |
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Making the Audience an Accomplice | |
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Redundancy | |
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Repeated Claims | |
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Repeated Exposure | |
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Advertisers' Strategies for Persuasion | |
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Naming the Product | |
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Differentiating Products | |
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Creating Associations | |
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Associations with Celebrities and Authorities | |
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Cannibalizing the Past for Associations | |
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Associating Media Outlets to Products | |
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Exploiting Argumentative Forms to Create Associations and Participation | |
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But Does Advertising Work? | |
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To Sum Up | |
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Selected Readings | |
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Influencing Advertisers | |
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Regulation and Self-Regulation | |
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The Federal Trade Commission | |
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The Powers of Other State and Federal Agencies | |
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The National Advertising Division | |
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The National Association of Broadcasters | |
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Network Standards | |
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Obstacles to Regulation | |
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Problems Faced by Regulators | |
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Determining Deception | |
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Effects of Stricter Regulation | |
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What Advertisers May Not Say and Do | |
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Limitations on Distortion | |
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Limitations Imposed by the Audience | |
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To Sum Up | |
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Analysis: Analyzing an Ad | |
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What Type of Ad Is It? | |
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If the Ad Is a PSA | |
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If the Ad Is an Idea Ad (pro-life or pro-choice, for example) | |
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If the Ad Advertises a Service Rather Than a Product (for example, travel on a certain airline) | |
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If the Ad Is a Goodwill Ad | |
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If the Ad Is a Political Ad | |
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If the Ad Is a Product Ad | |
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Audience | |
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Ad Content (not all points apply to PSAs) | |
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Assumptions (values presumed in the ad) | |
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Programming or Content Sponsored by an Ad | |
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Content Surrounding (Contextualizing) an Ad | |
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Media Mix | |
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Pressure on Advertiser | |
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Effect | |
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Selected Readings | |
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How to Influence the Media | |
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Individual Complaints | |
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Group Pressure | |
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Boycotts | |
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Legal Actions | |
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Promoting Self-Regulation | |
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Pressure from an Established Organization | |
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Pressure from a Social Movement | |
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Creating Legislative Pressure | |
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State Level | |
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Federal Level | |
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To Sum Up | |
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Analysis: Constructing a Strategy for Message Distribution | |
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Isolating the Message | |
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Defining the Intended Audience | |
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Determining the Newsworthiness of the Message | |
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Determining Factors Constraining Release | |
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Selecting Appropriate Channels | |
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Adapting the Message to the Channel | |
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Monitoring Your Success or Failure | |
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Selected Readings | |
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Political Versus Product Campaigns | |
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Defining Ads | |
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Candidate Access: Free Time | |
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What Protects Voters: Responsibility of Journalists | |
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Products versus Candidates | |
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Using the Media | |
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Creating an Image | |
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Targeting the Audience | |
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Economic versus Political Values | |
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Regulation | |
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Censorship | |
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Equal Opportunity | |
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Right to Access | |
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Cost and Access | |
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Campaign Spending Limits | |
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McCain-Feingold: Campaign Finance Reform | |
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527s | |
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Issue Advocacy | |
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Campaign Objectives | |
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Voting versus Buying | |
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Criteria for Victory | |
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Unpaid Coverage | |
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Quality | |
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Endorsements | |
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Financing | |
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To Sum Up | |
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Selected Readings | |
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How Has the Internet Changed Politics? | |
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How the Interactivity of the Internet Is Changing Politics | |
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Increasing Citizen Access to Information | |
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The Downside | |
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Mainstream as Monitor of the New Medium | |
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Democratizing the Production of Content: The Citizen as Content Producer | |
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Web Ads | |
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To Sum Up | |
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Selected Readings | |
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News and Advertising in the Political Campaign | |
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Controlling News Coverage | |
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Controlling Media Access | |
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Setting the Media's Agenda | |
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Creating Credible Pseudo-Events | |
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Using Ads to Contextualize News | |
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Blurring the Distinction between News and Commercials | |
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Exploiting Media Concepts of the Political Process | |
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Responding to or Preventing Attack | |
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Backlash | |
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Last-Minute Attacks | |
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Adwatches | |
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Responding to Last-Minute Attacks | |
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Exploiting Blunders | |
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Attacks Legitimized by the Media | |
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Enlisting the Help of Journalists | |
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Tests of Credibility Applied by Journalists | |
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How Has Television Changed Politics? | |
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Image versus Issues; Character versus Positions | |
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The Comparative Relevance of Character and Stands on Issues | |
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The Interplay of Influence: Issues and Character in Ads, News, and Debates | |
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Ads | |
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News | |
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Debates | |
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To Sum Up | |
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Analysis: Political Ads and News | |
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Determining Who Is Newsworthy | |
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Determining What Is Covered | |
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Relationship of Candidates and Reporters | |
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The Image of the Candidate | |
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Candidates' Ads | |
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Selected Readings | |
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Notes | |
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Index | |