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List of Illustrations | |
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Preface | |
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Acknowledgments | |
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Basic Properties of Radiation, Atmospheres, and Oceans | |
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Introduction | |
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Parts of the Spectrum | |
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Extraterrestrial Solar Flux | |
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Terrestrial Infrared Flux | |
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Radiative Interaction with Planetary Media | |
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Feedback Processes | |
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Types of Matter that Affect Radiation | |
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Vertical Structure of Planetary Atmospheres | |
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Hydrostatic and Ideal Gas Laws | |
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Minor Species in the Atmosphere | |
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Optical Line-of-Sight Paths | |
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Radiative Equilibrium and the Thermal Structure of Atmospheres | |
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Climate Change: Radiative Forcing and Feedbacks | |
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Density Structure of the Ocean | |
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Vertical Structure of the Ocean | |
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The Mixed Layer and the Deep Ocean | |
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Seasonal Variations of Ocean Properties | |
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Sea-Surface Temperature | |
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Ocean Spectral Reflectance and Opacity | |
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Remarks on Nomenclature, Notation, and Units | |
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Summary | |
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Basic State Variables and the Radiative Transfer Equation | |
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Introduction | |
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Geometrical Optics | |
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Radiative Flux or Irradiance | |
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Spectral Intensity and Its Angular Moments | |
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Relationship between Flux and Intensity | |
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Average Intensity and Energy Density | |
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Some Theorems on Intensity | |
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Intensity and Flux from an Extended Source | |
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Perception of Brightness: Analogy with Radiance | |
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The Extinction Law | |
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Extinction = Scattering + Absorption | |
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The Differential Equation of Radiative Transfer | |
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Summary | |
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Basic Scattering Processes | |
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Introduction | |
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Lorentz Theory for Radiation-Matter Interactions | |
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Scattering and Collective Effects in a Uniform Medium | |
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Scattering from Density Irregularities | |
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Scattering in Random Media | |
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First-Order and Multiple Scattering | |
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Scattering from a Damped Simple Harmonic Oscillator | |
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Case (1): Resonance Scattering and the Lorentz Profile | |
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Conservative and Nonconservative Scattering | |
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Natural Broadening | |
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Pressure Broadening | |
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Doppler Broadening | |
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Realistic Line-Broadening Processes | |
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Case (2): Rayleigh Scattering | |
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The Scattering Phase Function | |
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Rayleigh-Scattering Phase Function | |
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Mie-Debye Scattering | |
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Summary | |
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Absorption by Solid, Aqueous, and Gaseous Media | |
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Introduction | |
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Absorption on Surfaces, on Aerosols, and within Aqueous Media | |
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Solids | |
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Aerosols | |
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Liquids | |
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Molecular Absorption in Gases | |
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Thermal Emission and Radiation Laws | |
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Planck's Spectral Distribution Law | |
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Radiative Excitation Processes in Molecules | |
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Inelastic Collisional Processes | |
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Maintenance of Thermal Equilibrium Distributions | |
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The Two-Level Atom | |
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Microscopic Radiative Transfer Equation | |
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Effects of Collisions on State Populations | |
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Absorption in Molecular Lines and Bands | |
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Molecular Rotation: The Rigid Rotator | |
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Molecular Vibration and Rotation: The Vibrating Rotator | |
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Line Strengths | |
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Absorption Processes in the UV/Visible | |
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Summary | |
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Principles of Radiative Transfer | |
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Introduction | |
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Boundary Properties of Planetary Media | |
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Thermal Emission from a Surface | |
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Absorption by a Surface | |
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Kirchhoff's Law for Surfaces | |
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Surface Reflection: The BRDF | |
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Albedo for Collimated Incidence | |
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The Flux Reflectance, or Albedo: Diffuse Incidence | |
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Analytic Reflectance Expressions | |
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The Opposition Effect | |
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Specular Reflection from the Sea Surface | |
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Transmission through a Slab Medium | |
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Spherical, or Bond Albedo | |
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Absorption and Scattering in Planetary Media | |
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Kirchhoff's Law for Volume Absorption and Emission | |
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Differential Equation of Radiative Transfer | |
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Solution of the Radiative Transfer Equation for Zero Scattering | |
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Solution with Zero Scattering in Slab Geometry | |
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Half-Range Quantities in a Slab Geometry | |
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Formal Solution in a Slab Geometry | |
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Gray Slab Medium in Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium | |
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Formal Solution Including Scattering and Emission | |
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Radiative Heating Rate | |
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Generalized Gershun's Law | |
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Warming Rate, or the Temperature Tendency | |
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Actinic Radiation, Photolysis Rate, and Dose Rate | |
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Summary | |
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Formulation of Radiative Transfer Problems | |
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Introduction | |
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Separation into Diffuse and Direct (Solar) Components | |
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Lower Boundary Conditions | |
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Multiple Scattering | |
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Azimuth Independence of Flux and Mean Intensity | |
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Azimuthal Dependence of the Radiation Field | |
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Spherical Shell Geometry | |
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Nonstratified Media | |
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Radiative Transfer in the Atmosphere-Ocean System | |
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Two Stratified Media with Different Indices of Refraction | |
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Examples of Phase Functions | |
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Rayleigh Phase Function | |
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The Mie-Debye Phase Function | |
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Scaling Transformations Useful for Anisotropic Scattering | |
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The [delta]-Isotropic Approximation | |
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The [delta]-Two-Term Approximation | |
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Remarks on Low-Order Scaling Approximations | |
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The [delta]-N Approximation: Arbitrary N | |
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Mathematical and Physical Meaning of the Scaling | |
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Prototype Problems in Radiative Transfer Theory | |
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Prototype Problem 1: Uniform Illumination | |
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Prototype Problem 2: Constant Imbedded Source | |
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Prototype Problem 3: Diffuse Reflection Problem | |
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Boundary Conditions: Reflecting and Emitting Surface | |
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Reciprocity, Duality, and Inhomogeneous Media | |
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Effects of Surface Reflection on the Radiation Field | |
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Integral Equation Formulation of Radiative Transfer | |
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Probabilistic Aspects of Radiative Transfer | |
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The Escape Probability | |
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Summary | |
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Approximate Solutions of Prototype Problems | |
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Introduction | |
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Separation of the Radiation Field into Orders of Scattering | |
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Lambda Iteration: The Multiple-Scattering Series | |
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Single-Scattered Contribution from Ground Reflection: The Planetary Problem | |
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The Two-Stream Approximation: Isotropic Scattering | |
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Approximate Differential Equations | |
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The Mean Inclination: Possible Choices for [mu] | |
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Prototype Problem 1: Differential-Equation Approach | |
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Prototype Problem 2: Imbedded Source | |
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Prototype Problem 3: Beam Incidence | |
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Conservative Scattering in a Finite Slab | |
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Anisotropic Scattering | |
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Two-Stream Versus Eddington Approximations | |
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The Backscattering Coefficients | |
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Two-Stream Solutions for Anisotropic Scattering | |
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Scaling Approximations for Anisotropic Scattering | |
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Generalized Two-Stream Equations | |
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Accuracy of the Two-Stream Method | |
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Final Comments on the Two-Stream Method | |
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Summary | |
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Accurate Numerical Solutions of Prototype Problems | |
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Introduction | |
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Discrete-Ordinate Method-Isotropic Scattering | |
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Quadrature Formulas | |
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The Double-Gauss Method | |
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Anisotropic Scattering | |
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General Considerations | |
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Quadrature Rule | |
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Matrix Formulation of the Discrete-Ordinate Method | |
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Two- and Four-Stream Approximations | |
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Multistream Approximation (N Arbitrary) | |
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Matrix Eigensolutions | |
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Two-Stream Solutions (N = 1) | |
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Multistream Solutions (N Arbitrary) | |
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Inhomogeneous Solution | |
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General Solution | |
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Source Function and Angular Distributions | |
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Boundary Conditions-Removal of Ill-Conditioning | |
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Boundary Conditions | |
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Removal of Numerical Ill-Conditioning | |
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Inhomogeneous Multilayered Media | |
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General Solution-Boundary and Layer Interface Conditions | |
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Source Functions and Angular Distributions | |
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Numerical Implementation of the Discrete-Ordinate Method | |
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Correction of the Truncated Intensity Field | |
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The Nakajima-Tanaka Correction Procedure | |
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Computed Intensity Distributions for the Standard Problem | |
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The Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean Problem | |
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Discretized Equations for the Atmosphere-Ocean System | |
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Quadrature and General Solution | |
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Boundary, Continuity, and Atmosphere-Ocean Interface Conditions | |
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The Doubling-Adding and the Matrix Operator Methods | |
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Matrix-Exponential Solution-Formal Derivation of Doubling Rules | |
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Connection between Doubling and Discrete-Ordinate Methods | |
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Intuitive Derivation of the Doubling Rules-Adding of Dissimilar Layers | |
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Other Accurate Methods | |
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The Spherical-Harmonics Method | |
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Invariant Imbedding | |
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Iteration Methods | |
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The Feautrier Method | |
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Integral Equation Approach | |
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Monte Carlo Methods | |
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Summary | |
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Shortwave Radiative Transfer | |
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Introduction | |
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Solar Radiation | |
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Optical Properties of the Earth-Atmosphere System | |
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Gaseous Absorption and Penetration Depth | |
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Optical Properties of Atmospheric Aerosols | |
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Optical Properties of Warm (Liquid Water) Clouds | |
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Optical Properties of Ice Clouds | |
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Optical Properties of the Ocean | |
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Optical Properties of Snow and Ice | |
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Modeling of Shortwave Radiative Effects in the Atmosphere | |
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Spectral Averaging Procedure: The Chandrasekhar Mean | |
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Solar Warming Rates Due to Ozone, Aerosols, and Clouds | |
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Computation of Photolysis Rates | |
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UV Transmission: Relation to Ozone Abundance | |
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UV Transmission and Dose Rates at the Earth's Surface | |
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Comparison of Measured and Computed UV Irradiance at the Surface | |
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Modeling of Shortwave Radiation in the Ocean | |
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Diffuse Radiation: Attenuation in the Ocean | |
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Two-Stream Model Appropriate for Deep Water | |
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Backscattering by Ocean Particles: The Role of Shape Factors | |
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Approximate Expressions for the Remotely Sensed Reflectance | |
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Modeling the UV Transmission into the Ocean | |
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Measured and Computed UV Irradiance in the Ocean | |
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Interaction of Solar Radiation with Snow and Ice | |
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Summary | |
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Transmission in Spectrally Complex Media | |
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Introduction | |
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Transmission in an Isolated Line | |
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Isolated Lorentz Line | |
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Band Models | |
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The Elsasser Band Model | |
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Distributed Line Intensities | |
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Random Band Model | |
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MODTRAN: A Moderate-Resolution Band Model | |
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Spectral Mapping Transformations for Homogeneous Media | |
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Method of the k-Distribution | |
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k-Distribution for the Malkmus Band Model | |
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Transmission in Nongray Inhomogeneous Media | |
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The H-C-G Scaling Approximation | |
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LBL Transmission Computation: Inhomogeneous Paths | |
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Inclusion of Multiple Scattering in LBL Computations | |
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The Correlated-k Method | |
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Inclusion of Multiple Scattering in the Correlated-k Method | |
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Summary | |
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Radiative Transfer in Nongray Media | |
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Introduction | |
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Radiative Flux and Heating Rate: Clear-Sky Conditions | |
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Monochromatic Flux Equations | |
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Wide-Band Emittance Models | |
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Narrow-Band Absorption Model | |
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Band Overlap | |
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The Diffusivity Approximation | |
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Equations for the Heating Rate | |
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Clear-Sky Radiative Cooling: Nonisothermal Medium | |
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Computations of Terrestrial Cooling Rates | |
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The IR Radiative Impact of Clouds and Aerosols | |
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Heating Rate in an Idealized Cloud | |
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Detailed Longwave Radiative Effects of Clouds | |
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Accurate Treatment Including Scattering | |
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Summary | |
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The Role of Radiation in Climate | |
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Introduction | |
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Radiative Equilibrium with Zero Visible Opacity | |
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Radiative Equilibrium with Finite Visible Opacity | |
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Radiative-Convective Equilibrium | |
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The Concept of the Emission Height | |
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Effects of a Spectral Window | |
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Radiative Forcing | |
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Climate Impact of Clouds | |
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Longwave Effects of Water Clouds | |
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Shortwave Effects of Water Clouds | |
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Combined Shortwave and Longwave Effects of Clouds | |
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Climate Impact of Cloud Height | |
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Cloud and Aerosol Forcing | |
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Aerosol Forcing | |
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Water-Vapor Feedback | |
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Effects of Carbon Dioxide Changes | |
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Greenhouse Effect from Individual Gas Species | |
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Summary | |
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Appendices | |
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Nomenclature: Glossary of Symbols | |
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Physical Constants | |
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Model Atmospheres | |
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Ocean Optics Nomenclature | |
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Reflectance and Transmittance at an Interface | |
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Index | |