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| Preface to Volume 1 | |
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| Overview | |
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| Patterns and Puzzles | |
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| Controversy | |
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| The Road from Here | |
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| Taxing, Spending, and Giving in the Late Eighteenth Century | |
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| Poor Relief, Public and Private | |
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| The Elderly | |
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| Public Education | |
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| The Long Rise of Social Spending | |
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| The Robin Hood Paradox | |
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| Is the Welfare State a Free Lunch? | |
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| An Educational Puzzle | |
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| Findings | |
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| Nine Conclusions | |
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| How Social Spending Emerged before World War II | |
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| Lessons from the Postwar Boom | |
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| Since 1980, Aging Has Brought New Budget Pressures | |
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| Unlocking the Free-Lunch Puzzle | |
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| How Welfare States Control the Disincentives | |
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| Early Retirement: A True, but Limited, Cost | |
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| The Pro-Growth Side of High Social Spending | |
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| Reconciling Europe's Unemployment with Its Satisfactory Growth | |
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| Two Cost-Cutting Principles in Democratic Welfare States | |
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| The Rise of Social Spending | |
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| Poor Relief before 1880 | |
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| How Much Did Europe Give the Poor before 1880? | |
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| Private Charity in Early Modern Europe: A Miscellany of Pittances | |
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| The Amounts of Public Poor Relief to 1880 | |
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| How Europe Gave Relief and for What | |
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| The Eternal Search for the Worthy and Unworthy Poor | |
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| The Battle over Putting the Poor to Work | |
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| Indoor versus Outdoor Relief | |
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| Administrative Costs | |
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| What They Gave: Cash versus Aid in Kind | |
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| Who Received It | |
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| Town versus Country | |
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| American Private and Public Relief before the New Deal | |
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| How Much Public Relief Was Given | |
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| Private Charity in the United States and the Crowding Out Issue | |
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| Two Attacks on Outdoor Relief in New York | |
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| Summary | |
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| Interpreting the Puzzles of Early Poor Relief | |
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| The Rise and Fall of England's Old Poor Law, 1780-1834 | |
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| Who Supported England's Old Poor Law? | |
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| The Reform Acts, Voice, and the Poor | |
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| The Rural-Urban Puzzle | |
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| If England Were Invisible: The Urban Bias in Poor Relief | |
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| England's Rural Southeastern Bias and the Boyer Model | |
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| An Extension to Scandinavia | |
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| The International Stagnation of Relief, 1820-1880 | |
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| The Predicted Effects of Extending the Franchise | |
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| The General Pre-1930 Pattern of Votes and Social Spending | |
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| Local versus Central Government: What Happened to the "Race to the Bottom?" | |
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| Summary: Political Voice and Poor Relief | |
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| The Rise of Mass Public Schooling before 1914 | |
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| Overview | |
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| To Be Explained: Patterns in the Inputs into Mass Schooling | |
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| Competing Theories | |
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| Updating the Elite-Pressure Theories | |
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| Landlords and Toryism | |
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| Capitalist Social Control | |
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| Domineering Government | |
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| Dominant Religions | |
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| Vested Interests within the Educational Sector | |
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| The Role of Decentralization | |
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| Popular Votes, Public Schools | |
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| But What Caused Democracy? | |
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| Reverse Causation from Schooling to Democracy? | |
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| Religious Diversity and the Rise of Democracy and Schooling | |
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| Reinterpreting National Histories of Mass Schooling | |
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| France, the Baseline Case | |
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| The English Delay | |
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| Rethinking German Education | |
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| Decentralized North America | |
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| Summary: Elites, Votes, and Schools | |
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| Public Schooling in the Twentieth Century: What Happened to U.S. Leadership? | |
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| Who Are the Leaders? | |
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| In Years of Education | |
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| In Learning | |
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| International Test Scores at the End of the Twentieth Century | |
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| When Did This Pattern Emerge? | |
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| In Inputs into Education | |
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| Taxpayer Effort on Behalf of Education | |
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| Expenditures per Student | |
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| Teaching Inputs per Student | |
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| Teachers' Pay and Quality | |
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| Summing Up the United States' Symptoms | |
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| The Underlying Incentive Issues | |
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| Quantity Incentives versus Quality Incentives | |
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| Student Accountability | |
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| Competition among Schools | |
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| The Long Sweep of U.S. School Choice | |
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| Analyses of Local Experience with School Choice | |
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| Deviant California | |
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| Choice in Higher Education | |
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| Subsidized School Choice in Other Countries | |
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| Rewarding Individual Teacher Performance | |
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| Conclusions: Which Explanations Fit the Symptoms? | |
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| Explaining the Rise of Social Transfers Since 1880 | |
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| Who Were the Pioneers before 1930? | |
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| Shared Fears from World Wars and the Great Depression | |
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| The Role of Political Voice | |
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| Democracies, Elite Democracies, and Full Democracies | |
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| Votes for Women | |
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| The Rate of Turnover of the Chief Executive | |
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| The Role of Aging: Gray Power? | |
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| Globalization and Safety Nets | |
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| Social Affinity: "That Could Be Me" | |
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| Summary | |
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| Prospects for Social Transfers | |
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| The Public Pension Crisis | |
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| In an Older World, Something Has to Give | |
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| Pressures in the OECD Countries | |
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| Who Is Most Threatened by Population Aging? | |
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| Who Is Least Prepared? | |
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| How Will Budgets Be Adjusted? | |
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| Immigrants and Pensioners | |
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| Returning to a Fully-Funded System Is Unlikely | |
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| Summary | |
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| Social Transfers in the Second and Third Worlds | |
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| The Aging Trend Is Nearly Global | |
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| Special Pressures in Transition Economies | |
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| Third World Social Transfers | |
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| Are They on a Different Path? | |
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| East Asia Is Not So Different | |
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| A Different Kind of Pension Crisis | |
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| Global Divergence, Convergence, and the Robin Hood Paradox | |
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| What Effects on Economic Growth? | |
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| Keys to the Free-Lunch Puzzle | |
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| The Familiar Cautionary Tales Miss the Mark | |
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| Disincentives on the Blackboard | |
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| Harold and Phyllis | |
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| Micro-Studies of Labor Supply | |
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| Simulations | |
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| Global Growth Econometrics | |
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| What Better Tests Show | |
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| How Can That Be True? | |
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| The Welfare-State Style of Taxing: Pro-Growth and Not So Progressive | |
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| Recipients' Work Incentives | |
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| The Poor May Face Lower Work Disincentives in the Welfare State | |
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| Early Retirement: Good Riddance to Old Lemons? | |
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| Does the Dole Also Harvest Lemons? | |
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| Some Growth Benefits of High Social Transfers | |
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| Active Labor Market Policies: Not Much There | |
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| Child Care Support and Career Investment in Mothers | |
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| Public Health Care | |
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| Why These Keys? | |
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| On the Well-Known Demise of the Swedish Welfare State | |
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| Who Proclaimed It and How | |
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| Sweden's Growth and Social Spending Since 1950 | |
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| What Went Wrong after the 1970s? | |
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| Macroeconomic Policy | |
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| The Demise of Swedish Corporatism | |
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| What Role for Sweden's High Tax Rates? | |
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| What Survived: Pro-Growth Social Spending | |
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| Investing in Women's Work and in Child Care | |
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| Education and Retraining | |
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| Late Retirement | |
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| Conclusions: Why No Demise | |
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| How the Keys Were Made: Democracy and Cost Control | |
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| Democracy, Budget Size, and Budget Blunders | |
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| Big Budget, High Stakes | |
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| Illustrative Tax-Transfer Blunders | |
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| Dutch Disability Policy | |
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| Labour's Selective Employment Tax of 1966-1970 | |
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| The Thatcher Poll Tax of 1989-1992 | |
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| Universalism May Cost Less | |
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| On the Tax Side | |
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| The Expenditure Side | |
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| Hence No Retreat | |
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| Notes | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Acknowledgments | |
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| Index | |