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The Earth and Its Atmosphere | |
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Overview of the Earth's Atmosphere | |
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Composition of the Atmosphere | |
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The Early Atmosphere | |
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Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere | |
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A Brief Look at Air Pressure and Air Density | |
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Layers of the Atmosphere | |
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The Ionosphere | |
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Weather and Climate | |
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Meteorology-A Brief History | |
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A Satellite's View of the Weather | |
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Storms of All Sizes | |
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A Look at a Weather Map | |
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Weather and Climate in Our Lives | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Energy: Warming the Earth and the Atmosphere | |
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Energy, Temperature, and Heat | |
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Temperature Scales | |
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Specific Heat | |
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Latent Heat-The Hidden Warmth | |
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Heat Transfer in the Atmosphere | |
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Conduction | |
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Convection | |
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Radiation | |
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Radiation and Temperature | |
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Radiation of the Sun and Earth | |
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Balancing Act-Absorption, Emission, and Equilibrium | |
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Selective Absorbers and the Atmospheric Greenhouse Effect | |
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Enhancement of the Greenhouse Effect | |
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Warming the Air from Below | |
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Incoming Solar Energy | |
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Scattered and Reflected Light | |
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The Earth's Annual Energy Balance | |
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Solar Particles and the Aurora | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Seasonal and Daily Temperatures | |
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Why the Earth Has Seasons | |
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Seasons in the Northern Hemisphere | |
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Seasons in the Southern Hemisphere | |
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Local Seasonal Variations | |
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Daily Temperature Variations | |
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Daytime Warming | |
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Nighttime Cooling | |
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Radiation Inversions | |
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Protecting Crops from the Cold | |
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The Controls of Temperature | |
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Air Temperature Data | |
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Daily, Monthly, and Yearly Temperatures | |
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The Use of Temperature Data | |
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Air Temperature and Human Comfort | |
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Measuring Air Temperature | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Atmospheric Moisture | |
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Water in the Atmosphere | |
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The Many Phases of Water | |
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Circulation of Water in the Atmosphere | |
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Absolute Humidity | |
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Specific Humidity and Mixing Ratio | |
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Vapor Pressure | |
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Relative Humidity | |
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Relative Humidity and Dew Point | |
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Comparing Humidities | |
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Relative Humidity in the Home | |
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Relative Humidity and Human Discomfort | |
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Measuring Humidity | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Condensation: Dew, Fog, and Clouds | |
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The Formation of Dew and Frost | |
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Condensation Nuclei | |
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Haze | |
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Fog | |
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Radiation Fog | |
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Advection Fog | |
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Upslope Fog | |
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Evaporation (Mixing) Fog | |
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Foggy Weather | |
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Clouds | |
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Classification of Clouds | |
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Cloud Identification | |
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High Clouds | |
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Middle Clouds | |
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Low Clouds | |
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Clouds with Vertical Development | |
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Some Unusual Clouds | |
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Cloud Observations | |
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Determining Sky Conditions | |
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Satellite Observations | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Stability and Cloud Development | |
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Atmospheric Stability | |
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Determining Stability | |
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Stable Air | |
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A Stable Atmosphere | |
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An Unstable Atmosphere | |
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Causes of Instability | |
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Cloud Development | |
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Convection and Clouds | |
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Topography and Clouds | |
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Changing Cloud Forms | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Precipitation | |
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Precipitation Processes | |
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How Do Cloud Droplets Grow Larger? | |
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Collision and Coalescence Process | |
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Ice-Crystal Process | |
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Cloud Seeding and Precipitation | |
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Precipitation in Clouds | |
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Precipitation Types | |
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Rain | |
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Snow | |
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Snowflakes and Snowfall | |
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A Blanket of Snow | |
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Sleet and Freezing Rain | |
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Snow Grains and Snow Pellets | |
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Hail | |
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Measuring Precipitation | |
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Instruments | |
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Doppler Radar and Precipitation | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Air Pressure and Winds | |
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Atmospheric Pressure | |
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Pressure Measurements | |
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Pressure Readings | |
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Surface and Upper-Level Charts | |
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Newton's Laws of Motion | |
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Forces That Influence the Winds | |
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Pressure Gradient Force | |
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Coriolis Force | |
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Straight-Line Flow Aloft-Geostrophic Winds | |
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Curved Winds Around Lows and Highs Aloft-Gradient Winds | |
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Winds on Upper-Level Charts | |
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Surface Winds | |
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Winds and Vertical Air Motions | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Wind: Small-Scale and Local Systems | |
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Small-Scale Winds Interacting with the Environment | |
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Scales of Motion | |
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Friction and Turbulence in the Boundary Layer | |
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Eddies-Big and Small | |
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The Force of the Wind | |
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Microscale Winds Blowing over the Earth's Surface | |
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Determining Wind Direction and Speed | |
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The Influence of Prevailing Winds | |
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Wind Instruments | |
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Local Wind Systems | |
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Thermal Circulations | |
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Sea and Land Breezes | |
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Local Winds and Water | |
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Seasonally Changing Winds-The Monsoon | |
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Mountain and Valley Breezes | |
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Katabatic Winds | |
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Chinook (Foehn) Winds | |
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Santa Ana Winds | |
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Desert Winds | |
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Other Local Winds of Interest | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Wind: Global Systems | |
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General Circulation of the Atmosphere | |
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Single-Cell Model | |
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Three-Cell Model | |
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Average Surface Winds and Pressure: The Real World | |
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The General Circulation and Precipitation Patterns | |
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Average Wind Flow and Pressure Patterns Aloft | |
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Jet Streams | |
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The Formation of the Polar Front Jet and the Subtropical Jet | |
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Other Jet Streams | |
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Atmosphere-Ocean Interactions | |
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Global Wind Patterns and Surface Ocean Currents | |
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Upwelling | |
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El Nino and the Southern Oscillation | |
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Pacific Decadal Oscillation | |
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North Atlantic Oscillation | |
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Arctic Oscillation | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Air Masses and Fronts | |
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Air Masses | |
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Source Regions | |
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Classification | |
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Air Masses of North America | |
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cP (Continental Polar) and cA (Continental Arctic) Air Masses | |
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mP (Maritime Polar) Air Masses | |
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mT (Maritime Tropical) Air Masses | |
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cT (Continental Tropical) Air Masses | |
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Fronts | |
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Stationary Fronts | |
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Cold Fronts | |
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Warm Fronts | |
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Occluded Fronts | |
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Upper-Air Fronts | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Middle-Latitude Cyclones | |
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Polar Front Theory | |
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Where Do Mid-Latitude Cyclones Tend to Form? | |
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Vertical Structure of Deep Dynamic Lows | |
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Upper-Level Waves and Mid-Latitude Cyclones | |
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The Necessary Ingredients for a Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclone | |
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Upper-Air Support | |
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The Role of the Jet Stream | |
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Conveyor Belt Model of Mid-Latitude Cyclones | |
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A Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclone-The March Storm of 1993 | |
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Vorticity, Divergence, and Developing Mid-Latitude Cyclones | |
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Earth Vorticity, Relative Vorticity, and Absolute Vorticity | |
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Putting It All Together-A Monstrous Snowstorm | |
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Polar Lows | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Weather Forecasting | |
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Acquisition of Weather Information | |
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Weather Forecasting Methods | |
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The Computer and Weather Forecasting: Numerical Weather Prediction | |
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Forecasting Tools | |
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Why Forecasts Go Awry and Steps to Improve Them | |
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Other Forecasting Methods | |
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Types of Forecasts | |
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Accuracy and Skill in Forecasting | |
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Predicting the Weather from Local Signs | |
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Weather Forecasting Using Surface Charts | |
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Determining the Movement of Weather Systems | |
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A Forecast for Six Cities | |
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Weather Forecast for Augusta, Georgia | |
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Rain or Snow for Washington, D.C.? | |
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Big Snowstorm for Chicago | |
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Mixed Bag of Weather for Memphis | |
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Cold Wave for Dallas | |
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Clear but Cold for Denver | |
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A Meteorologist Makes a Prediction | |
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Help from the 500-mb Chart | |
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The Computer Provides Assistance | |
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A Valid Forecast | |
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Assistance from the Satellite | |
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A Day of Rain and Wind | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Thunderstorms and Tornadoes | |
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Thunderstorms | |
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Ordinary Cell Thunderstorms | |
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Severe Thunderstorms and the Supercell | |
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Squall Lines and Mesoscale Convective Complexes | |
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Dryline Thunderstorms | |
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Gust Fronts, Microbursts, and Derechoes | |
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Floods and Flash Floods | |
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Distribution of Thunderstorms | |
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Lightning and Thunder | |
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Electrification of Clouds | |
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The Lightning Stroke | |
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Lightning Detection and Suppression | |
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Tornadoes | |
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Tornado Life Cycle | |
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Tornado Outbreaks | |
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Tornado Occurrence | |
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Tornado Winds | |
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Seeking Shelter | |
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The Fujita Scale | |
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Tornadic Thunderstorms | |
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Supercell Tornadoes | |
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Nonsupercell Tornadoes | |
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Severe Weather and Doppler Radar | |
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Waterspouts | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Hurricanes | |
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Tropical Weather | |
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Anatomy of a Hurricane | |
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Hurricane Formation and Dissipation | |
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Hurricane Stages of Development | |
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Hurricane Movement | |
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Eastern Pacific Hurricanes | |
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North Atlantic Hurricanes | |
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Destruction and Warning | |
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Devastating Hurricanes | |
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Modifying Hurricanes | |
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Naming Hurricanes | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Climate Change | |
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The Earth's Changing Climate | |
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Determining Past Climates | |
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Climate Through the Ages | |
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Climate During the Past 1000 Years | |
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Temperature Trend during the Past 100-Plus Years | |
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Possible Causes of Climatic Change | |
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Climate Change and Feedback Mechanisms | |
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Climate Change, Plate Tectonics, and Mountain Building | |
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Climate Change and Variations in the Earth's Orbit | |
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Climate Change and Atmospheric Particles | |
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Aerosols in the Troposphere | |
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Volcanic Eruptions and Aerosols in the Stratosphere | |
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Climate Change and Variations in Solar Output | |
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Global Warming | |
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The Recent Warming | |
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Radiative Forcing Agents | |
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Climate Models and Recent Temperature Trends | |
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Future Warming-Projections, Questions, and Uncertainties | |
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Questions and Uncertainties About Greenhouse Gases | |
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Clouds Get in the Way | |
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Possible Consequences of Global Warming | |
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In Perspective | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Global Climate | |
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A World with Many Climates | |
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Global Temperatures | |
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Global Precipitation | |
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Climatic Classification | |
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The Ancient Greeks | |
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The Koppen System | |
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Thornthwaite's System | |
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The Global Pattern of Climate | |
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Tropical Moist Climates (Group A) | |
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Dry Climates (Group B) | |
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Moist Subtropical Mid-Latitude Climates (Group C) | |
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Moist Continental Climates (Group D) | |
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Polar Climates (Group E) | |
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Highland Climates (Group H) | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Air Pollution | |
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A Brief History of Air Pollution | |
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Types and Sources of Air Pollutants | |
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Principal Air Pollutants | |
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Ozone in the Troposphere | |
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Ozone in the Stratosphere | |
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Stratospheric Ozone: Production-Destruction | |
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Stratospheric Ozone-Upsetting the Balance | |
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Air Pollution: Trends and Patterns | |
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Factors that Affect Air Pollution | |
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The Role of the Wind | |
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The Role of Stability and Inversions | |
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The Role of Topography | |
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Severe Air Pollution Potential | |
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Air Pollution and the Urban Environment | |
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Acid Deposition | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Light, Color, and Atmospheric Optics | |
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White and Colors | |
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White Clouds and Scattered Light | |
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Blue Skies and Hazy Days | |
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Red Suns and Blue Moons | |
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Twinkling, Twilight, and the Green Flash | |
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The Mirage: Seeing Is Not Believing | |
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Halos, Sundogs, and Sun Pillars | |
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Rainbows | |
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Coronas, Glories, and Heiligenschein | |
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Summary | |
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Key Terms | |
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Questions for Review | |
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Questions for Thought | |
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Problems and Exercises | |
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Questions for Exploration | |
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Units, Conversions, Abbreviations, and Equations | |
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Weather Symbols and the Station Model | |
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Beaufort Wind Scale (Over Land) | |
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Humidity and Dew-Point Tables | |
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Instant Weather Forecast Chart | |
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Changing GMT and UTC to Local Time | |
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Global Average Annual Precipitation | |
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Standard Atmosphere | |
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Hurricane Tracking Chart | |
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Adiabatic Chart | |
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Glossary | |
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Additional Reading Material | |
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Index | |