| |
| |
Preface | |
| |
| |
Acknowledgments | |
| |
| |
Acronyms | |
| |
| |
Industrial Property | |
| |
| |
Introduction: From Diffraction to Diffractive Optics | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Huygens-Fresnel Diffraction | |
| |
| |
| |
Fraunhofer and Fresnel Diffraction | |
| |
| |
| |
Examples of Far-Field Diffraction Patterns | |
| |
| |
| |
Long, Narrow Slit Example | |
| |
| |
| |
Double Slit Example | |
| |
| |
| |
Diffraction Grating | |
| |
| |
| |
Fraunhofer Diffraction for a Rectangular Aperture | |
| |
| |
| |
Fraunhofer Diffraction for a Circular Aperture | |
| |
| |
| |
Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| |
Design and Simulation of Diffractive Optical Elements | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Diffraction Modelling of DOEs: Theoretical Background | |
| |
| |
| |
Diffraction of Monochromatic Waves | |
| |
| |
| |
Review of Scalar Diffraction Theory for DOE Modelling | |
| |
| |
Limitations of the Kirchhoff Model | |
| |
| |
| |
Review of Rigorous Diffraction Models | |
| |
| |
Grating Description | |
| |
| |
Lord Rayleigh's Early Propositions | |
| |
| |
Integral Method | |
| |
| |
Differential Method | |
| |
| |
Modal Approach | |
| |
| |
Rigorous Coupled Wave Analysis Approach | |
| |
| |
Two-Wave Theory | |
| |
| |
Raman-Nath's Method | |
| |
| |
Kogelnik's Method | |
| |
| |
Analytical Methods | |
| |
| |
Rytov's Method | |
| |
| |
Effective Medium Theory (EMT) | |
| |
| |
Farn's Method | |
| |
| |
| |
Review of Intermediate Diffraction Models | |
| |
| |
Optimum Etch Depth | |
| |
| |
Geometrical Shadow Duty Cycle | |
| |
| |
| |
Theoretical Aspects of DOE Performance in the Paraxial Domain | |
| |
| |
| |
Energetic Considerations of Scalar Diffraction | |
| |
| |
Diffraction Efficiency for Amplitude DOEs | |
| |
| |
Diffraction Efficiency for Multilevel Surface Relief DOEs | |
| |
| |
Diffraction Efficiency for Analog Surface Relief DOEs | |
| |
| |
| |
Geometric Considerations of Scalar Diffraction | |
| |
| |
| |
Physical DOE Layout Considerations for Diffraction Efficiency | |
| |
| |
| |
Numerical Implementation Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
Numerical Implementation of Scalar Theory | |
| |
| |
| |
Object Sampling Considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
Finite Pixel Size Considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
From the DFT to the FFT Algorithm | |
| |
| |
| |
CPU Time Considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
Numerical Implementation of Rigorous Diffraction Theories | |
| |
| |
| |
Numerical RCWA Resolution Method | |
| |
| |
Modelling of a Periodic Profile of Infinite Extent | |
| |
| |
Global Wavefront Coupling | |
| |
| |
Field Description Outside the Diffractive Structure Region | |
| |
| |
Resolution of the Wave Equation | |
| |
| |
Matrix Representation of the Wave Equation | |
| |
| |
Approximations of the RCWA Method | |
| |
| |
| |
Discussion on the Coupled Wave Approximations | |
| |
| |
| |
CPU Time Considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
DOE Design and Optimization Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
Analytical-Type Diffractive Elements | |
| |
| |
| |
Straightforward Design | |
| |
| |
| |
Use of Classical Optical Design (COD) Tools | |
| |
| |
Radially Symmetrical Phase Profiles for Aspherical Phase Profile Description (the Well-Known Sag Equation) | |
| |
| |
General Non-symmetrical Aspherical Phase Profile Described as a Polynomial Expansion (i.e. CodeV Output Format) | |
| |
| |
| |
Interferogram-Type DOEs | |
| |
| |
| |
Harmonic or Multiorder DOEs | |
| |
| |
| |
Holographic Optical Elements (HOEs) | |
| |
| |
| |
Numerical-Type Diffractive Elements | |
| |
| |
| |
Characteristics of Numerical-Type DOEs | |
| |
| |
Degrees of Freedom of Design Process | |
| |
| |
DOE-Related Degrees of Freedom | |
| |
| |
Reconstruction Plane-Related Degrees of Freedom | |
| |
| |
| |
Quality Criteria of Reconstruction | |
| |
| |
Diffraction Efficiency [eta subscript d] | |
| |
| |
Root Mean Square Error (RMS-E) | |
| |
| |
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) | |
| |
| |
Strehl Ratio [gamma] | |
| |
| |
Cost Function Considerations | |
| |
| |
Space-Bandwidth Product (SBWP) | |
| |
| |
Implicit Design Constraint Considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
Direct Design Techniques | |
| |
| |
Talbot Array Illuminators | |
| |
| |
| |
Iterative Optimization Algorithms | |
| |
| |
| |
Input-Output Optimization Algorithms | |
| |
| |
Direct Binary Search Algorithm | |
| |
| |
Simulated Annealing (SA) Algorithms | |
| |
| |
Iterative Discrete On-Axis (IDO) Algorithm | |
| |
| |
| |
IFTA Optimization Algorithms | |
| |
| |
Gerchberg-Saxton Algorithm | |
| |
| |
Ping-Pong Algorithm | |
| |
| |
Yang-Gu Algorithm | |
| |
| |
| |
Algorithms Based on Evolutionary Programming | |
| |
| |
Genetic Algorithms | |
| |
| |
| |
Global Optimization Algorithms | |
| |
| |
| |
Multifunctional DOEs: Description and Classification | |
| |
| |
| |
Non-Linear Quantization | |
| |
| |
| |
Encoding Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
DOE Data Quantization Process | |
| |
| |
| |
Fringe-Oriented Encoding | |
| |
| |
| |
Cell-Oriented Encoding | |
| |
| |
| |
Pixel-Oriented Encoding | |
| |
| |
Complex Kinoform Encoding Method | |
| |
| |
Real Error Diffusion Encoding Method | |
| |
| |
Complex Error Diffusion Encoding Method | |
| |
| |
Lohman Encoding Method | |
| |
| |
Lee Encoding Method | |
| |
| |
Burch Encoding Method | |
| |
| |
| |
Spatial Carrier Encoding | |
| |
| |
High Spatial Frequency Carrier | |
| |
| |
Grating Dislocation Encoding | |
| |
| |
| |
Encoding Advantages and Limitations | |
| |
| |
| |
DOE Modelling and Simulation Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
Analytical-Type DOE Modelling and Simulation Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
Local Grating Approximation | |
| |
| |
| |
Equivalent Lens Model | |
| |
| |
| |
Sweatt Model | |
| |
| |
| |
User-Defined Surfaces (UDS) | |
| |
| |
| |
HOE Simulation Method | |
| |
| |
| |
Numerical-Type DOE Modelling and Simulation Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
BPM Modelling Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
TE Polarization Mode | |
| |
| |
| |
TM Polarization Mode | |
| |
| |
| |
References | |
| |
| |
| |
DOE Fabrication and Replication Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Desktop DOE Production Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
Photoreduction Technique | |
| |
| |
| |
Direct High-Resolution Printing | |
| |
| |
| |
Diamond Machine Tools | |
| |
| |
| |
Dynamical Devices | |
| |
| |
| |
Reconfigurable DOEs | |
| |
| |
| |
Acousto-Optical Modulators | |
| |
| |
| |
Electro-Optical Modulators | |
| |
| |
| |
Photorefractive Materials | |
| |
| |
| |
Liquid Crystal Spatial Light Modulators | |
| |
| |
| |
MEMs-Based Reconfigurable DOEs | |
| |
| |
| |
Switchable DOEs | |
| |
| |
| |
Microlithographic Fabrication Technology | |
| |
| |
| |
Mask Pattern Generators | |
| |
| |
| |
Laser-Beam Writing Machines | |
| |
| |
| |
Electron-Beam Pattern Generators | |
| |
| |
| |
Photolithographic Transfer | |
| |
| |
| |
Mask Aligners | |
| |
| |
| |
Phase Shift Masks | |
| |
| |
| |
Step and Scan: Steppers | |
| |
| |
| |
Pattern Etching | |
| |
| |
| |
Deep Exposure Lithography | |
| |
| |
| |
Deep X-Ray Exposure and Patterning | |
| |
| |
| |
Deep Proton Irradiation | |
| |
| |
| |
Direct Material Ablation Tools | |
| |
| |
| |
FIB Technology | |
| |
| |
| |
Direct Laser Ablation | |
| |
| |
| |
Fast Atom-Beam Masking | |
| |
| |
| |
Microlithographic Fabrication Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
Optical Interference | |
| |
| |
| |
Fiber Bragg Grating Fabrication | |
| |
| |
| |
Conventional Mask Alignments | |
| |
| |
| |
Grey-Tone Masking | |
| |
| |
| |
Direct Write Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
Direct Binary Write | |
| |
| |
| |
Direct Analog Write | |
| |
| |
| |
Ion Exchange Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
Ion Exchange Fabrication Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
LIGA Process | |
| |
| |
| |
Replication Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
Use of Step and Repeat (Stepper) | |
| |
| |
| |
Plastic Embossing Process | |
| |
| |
| |
Moulding Processes | |
| |
| |
| |
Injection Moulding DOE Replication Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
Sol - Gel Process | |
| |
| |
| |
Holographic Recording Process | |
| |
| |
| |
Summary of DOE Design and Fabrication | |
| |
| |
| |
References | |
| |
| |
| |
CAD/CAM Tools for DOEs | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
CAD Design Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
General Design Algorithm for CGHS | |
| |
| |
| |
Choice of the Core Propagator | |
| |
| |
| |
Improvements to the Core Algorithm | |
| |
| |
Improvements of the Quantization Process | |
| |
| |
Improvements in Uniformity | |
| |
| |
| |
Optimum Encoding Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
CAD Simulation Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
Numerical Propagator Constraints | |
| |
| |
Far-Field Reconstructions | |
| |
| |
Near-Field Reconstructions | |
| |
| |
Straightforward Fresnel Transform (SFFT) Propagator | |
| |
| |
Convolution-Based Fresnel Transform (CBFT) Propagator | |
| |
| |
The Kirchhoff-Based 3D Propagators | |
| |
| |
3DK-Based DOE Design and Optimization | |
| |
| |
| |
Increasing the Dynamic Range of the FFT-Based Reconstructions | |
| |
| |
| |
Imbedding Process | |
| |
| |
| |
Oversampling Process | |
| |
| |
| |
Effects of Combined Processes | |
| |
| |
| |
Example of Numerical Reconstruction Improvements | |
| |
| |
| |
Spatial Multiplexing Process | |
| |
| |
| |
High-Level DOE Operations in CAD/CAM Tools | |
| |
| |
| |
Spatial Multiplexing | |
| |
| |
| |
DOE Data Modulation | |
| |
| |
| |
Complex DOE Data Multiplexing | |
| |
| |
| |
Iterative DOE Data Multiplexing | |
| |
| |
| |
Solutions to Scaling Problem | |
| |
| |
| |
Adapted Constraint Sets for Convergence of Algorithm | |
| |
| |
| |
Associated Tolerancing: Design Rule Checks | |
| |
| |
| |
References | |
| |
| |
| |
DOE Fabrication Tolerancing Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Optimum Microlithographic Fabrication Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
Basic Requirements | |
| |
| |
| |
Experimental Investigations | |
| |
| |
| |
Direct Binary Electron-Beam Write | |
| |
| |
Experimental Validations | |
| |
| |
Fabrication Error Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
Direct Analog Electron-Beam Write | |
| |
| |
Experimental Validations | |
| |
| |
Fabrication Error Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
Fabrication Constraint Analysis and Modelling | |
| |
| |
| |
Electron-Beam Proximity Effects | |
| |
| |
| |
2D-EPE Effects | |
| |
| |
| |
3D EPE Effects | |
| |
| |
| |
Optical Proximity Effects | |
| |
| |
| |
Quantification of the Effects of 2D OPEs on DOE Performance | |
| |
| |
| |
Anisotropic Etching | |
| |
| |
| |
Quantification of the Effects of Anisotropic Ribe Etching on the DOE Performances | |
| |
| |
| |
Additional Ribe Etching Constraints and Errors | |
| |
| |
| |
Other Systematic Fabrication Errors | |
| |
| |
| |
Fabrication Tolerancing Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
Systematic Fabrication Error Compensation Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
Systematic Fabrication Error Compensation Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
Electron-Beam Proximity Compensation Algorithms | |
| |
| |
Analytical-Type DOE EPE Compensation | |
| |
| |
Numerical-Type DOE EPE Compensation | |
| |
| |
Application to 2D EPE Effects | |
| |
| |
Analytical-Type DOE Compensation | |
| |
| |
Numerical-Type DOE Compensation | |
| |
| |
Application to 3D EPE Effects | |
| |
| |
Analytical-Type DOE Compensation | |
| |
| |
Numerical-Type DOE Compensation | |
| |
| |
| |
Optical Proximity Compensation Algorithms | |
| |
| |
| |
Compensation of Other Fabrication Errors | |
| |
| |
| |
Direct Linear Compensation Methods | |
| |
| |
Electron-Beam Dosage | |
| |
| |
Anisotropic Ion Milling Errors | |
| |
| |
| |
Decreasing DOE Sensitivity to Fabrication Errors | |
| |
| |
| |
Numerical Propagator Core Alteration | |
| |
| |
| |
Multiple IFTA-Based Iterative Compensation | |
| |
| |
| |
Multiple PI Quantization Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
References | |
| |
| |
| |
DOE Mask Layout Generation | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Standard Fabrication File Formats | |
| |
| |
| |
High Level Formats | |
| |
| |
| |
Intermediate-Level Formats | |
| |
| |
| |
Source Languages | |
| |
| |
| |
Low-Level Formats | |
| |
| |
| |
DOE Data Fracture Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
Analytical-Type DOE Fracture | |
| |
| |
| |
Core Algorithm of the General-Purpose Fracture Process | |
| |
| |
| |
Fracture Error Quantification | |
| |
| |
| |
Fringe Search Algorithm | |
| |
| |
| |
Polygonization of Skeletonized Fringes | |
| |
| |
| |
Numerical-Type DOE Fracture | |
| |
| |
| |
Finding the Optimum Kinoform Cell Shape | |
| |
| |
| |
Data Compression Applied to the Final Fabrication File | |
| |
| |
Data Compression Method No. 1 | |
| |
| |
Data Compression Method No. 2 | |
| |
| |
| |
Simulation of Effects of DOE Data Fracture | |
| |
| |
| |
Final Formatting of the Fractured Patterns | |
| |
| |
| |
Reticule Layout Placement and Wafer Stepping | |
| |
| |
| |
System-Oriented DOE Designs: Examples | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Hybrid Optical Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
Diffractive/Refractive Partitioning Issues | |
| |
| |
| |
Simulation Techniques for Hybrid Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
DOE Phase Unwrapping Process | |
| |
| |
| |
Hybrid Ray Tracing/Fresnel Propagation Method | |
| |
| |
Example | |
| |
| |
| |
Additional Properties of Hybrid Lenses | |
| |
| |
| |
Shallow Blazed Diffractive Grooves | |
| |
| |
| |
Deep Blazed Diffractive Grooves | |
| |
| |
| |
Binary Diffractive Grooves | |
| |
| |
| |
Multiplexed Diffractive Grooves | |
| |
| |
| |
Optoelectronic Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
OE Partitioning Issues | |
| |
| |
| |
Example 1: Optical Clock Distribution for MCM | |
| |
| |
| |
Physical Parameter Optimization | |
| |
| |
| |
Related Constraints | |
| |
| |
| |
OE System Architecture Optimization Procedure | |
| |
| |
| |
Multifunctional DOE Optimization Procedure | |
| |
| |
| |
Example 2: Free-Space Optical Interconnections | |
| |
| |
| |
Computer Interconnection Architecture | |
| |
| |
| |
Physical Detector Placements | |
| |
| |
| |
DOE Array Design Considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
Example 3: OE Packaging Issues--Design Compensations | |
| |
| |
| |
OE Packaging Tolerancing | |
| |
| |
| |
DOE Compensation Techniques | |
| |
| |
Core Propagator Alteration | |
| |
| |
Use of the MP-GPA Algorithm | |
| |
| |
| |
Optomechanical Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
Optomechanical Partitioning Issues | |
| |
| |
| |
Example 1: Diffractive Synthetic Aperture Zoom | |
| |
| |
| |
Example 2: Microfluidic System | |
| |
| |
| |
Example 3: High-Resolution Lidar Signal Analysis Microsystem | |
| |
| |
| |
Summary | |
| |
| |
| |
References | |
| |
| |
Conclusion | |
| |
| |
Index | |