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Integrated-Circuit Devices And Modelling | |
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Semiconductors and pn Junctions | |
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Diodes | |
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Reverse-Biased Diodes | |
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Graded Junctions | |
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Large-Signal Junction Capacitance | |
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Forward-Biased Junctions | |
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Junction Capacitance of Forward-Biased Diode | |
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Small-Signal Model of a Forward-Biased Diode | |
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Schottky Diodes | |
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MOS Transistors | |
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Symbols for MOS Transistors | |
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Basic Operation | |
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Large-Signal Modelling | |
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Body Effect | |
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p-Channel Transistors | |
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Low-Frequency Small-Signal Modelling in the Active Region | |
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High-Frequency Small-Signal Modelling in the Active Region | |
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Small-Signal Modelling in the Triode and Cutoff Regions | |
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Analog Figures of Merit and Trade-offs | |
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Device Model Summary | |
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Constants | |
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Diode Equations | |
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MOS Transistor Equations | |
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Advanced MOS Modelling | |
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Subthreshold Operation | |
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Mobility Degradation | |
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Summary of Subthreshold and Mobility Degradation Equations | |
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Parasitic Resistances | |
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Short-Channel Effects | |
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Leakage Currents | |
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SPICE Modelling Parameters | |
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Diode Model | |
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MOS Transistors | |
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Advanced SPICE Models of MOS Transistors | |
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Passive Devices | |
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Resistors | |
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Capacitors | |
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Appendix | |
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Diode Exponential Relationship | |
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Diode-Diffusion Capacitance | |
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MOS Threshold Voltage and the Body Effect | |
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MOS Triode Relationship | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Processing And Layout | |
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CMOS Processing | |
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The Silicon Wafer | |
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Photolithography and Well Definition | |
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Diffusion and Ion Implantation | |
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Chemical Vapor Deposition and Defining the Active Regions | |
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Transistor Isolation | |
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Gate-Oxide and Threshold-Voltage Adjustments | |
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Polysilicon Gate Formation | |
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Implanting the Junctions, Depositing SiO2, and Opening Contact Holes | |
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Annealing, Depositing and Patterning Metal, and Overglass Deposition | |
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Additional Processing Steps | |
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CMOS Layout and Design Rules | |
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Spacing Rules | |
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Planarity and Fill Requirements | |
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Antenna Rules | |
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Latch-Up | |
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Variability and Mismatch | |
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Systematic Variations Including Proximity Effects | |
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Process Variations | |
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Random Variations and Mismatch | |
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Analog Layout Considerations | |
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Transistor Layouts | |
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Capacitor Matching | |
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Resistor Layout | |
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Noise Considerations | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Basic Current Mirrors And Single-Stage Amplifiers | |
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Simple CMOS Current Mirror | |
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Common-Source Amplifier | |
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Source-Follower or Common-Drain Amplifier | |
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Common-Gate Amplifier | |
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Source-Degenerated Current Mirrors | |
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Cascode Current Mirrors | |
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Cascode Gain Stage | |
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MOS Differential Pair and Gain Stage | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Frequency Response Of Electronic Circuits | |
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Frequency Response of Linear Systems | |
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Magnitude and Phase Response | |
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First-Order Circuits | |
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Second-Order Low-Pass Transfer Functions with Real Poles | |
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Bode Plots | |
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Second-Order Low-Pass Transfer Functions with Complex Poles | |
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Frequency Response of Elementary Transistor Circuits | |
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High-Frequency MOS Small-Signal Model | |
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Common-Source Amplifier | |
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Miller Theorem and Miller Effect | |
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Zero-Value Time-Constant Analysis | |
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Common-Source Design Examples | |
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Common-Gate Amplifier | |
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Cascode Gain Stage | |
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Source-Follower Amplifier | |
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Differential Pair | |
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High-Frequency T-Model | |
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Symmetric Differential Amplifier | |
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Single-Ended Differential Amplifier | |
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Differential Pair with Active Load | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Feedback Amplifiers | |
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Ideal Model of Negative Feedback | |
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Basic Definitions | |
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Gain Sensitivity | |
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Bandwidth | |
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Linearity | |
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Summary | |
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Dynamic Response of Feedback Amplifiers | |
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Stability Criteria | |
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Phase Margin | |
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First- and Second-Order Feedback Systems | |
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First-Order Feedback Systems | |
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Second-Order Feedback Systems | |
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Higher-Order Feedback Systems | |
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Common Feedback Amplifiers | |
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Obtaining the Loop Gain, L(s) | |
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Non-Inverting Amplifier | |
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Transimpedance (Inverting) Amplifiers | |
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Summary of Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Basic Opamp Design And Compensation | |
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Two-Stage CMOS Opamp | |
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Opamp Gain | |
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Frequency Response | |
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Slew Rate | |
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n-Channel or p-Channel Input Stage | |
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Systematic Offset Voltage | |
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Opamp Compensation | |
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Dominant-Pole Compensation and Lead Compensation | |
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Compensating the Two-Stage Opamp | |
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Making Compensation Independent of Process and Temperature | |
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Advanced Current Mirrors | |
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Wide-Swing Current Mirrors | |
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Enhanced Output-Impedance Current Mirrors and Gain Boosting | |
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Wide-Swing Current Mirror with Enhanced Output Impedance | |
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Current-Mirror Symbol | |
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Folded-Cascode Opamp | |
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Small-Signal Analysis | |
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Slew Rate | |
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Current Mirror Opamp | |
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Linear Settling Time Revisited | |
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Fully Differential Opamps | |
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Fully Differential Folded-Cascode Opamp | |
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Alternative Fully Differential Opamps | |
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Low Supply Voltage Opamps | |
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Common-Mode Feedback Circuits | |
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Summary of Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Biasing, References, And Regulators | |
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Analog Integrated Circuit Biasing | |
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Bias Circuits | |
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Reference Circuits | |
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Regulator Circuits | |
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Establishing Constant Transconductance | |
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Basic Constant-Transconductance Circuit | |
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Improved Constant-Transconductance Circuits | |
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Establishing Constant Voltages and Currents | |
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Bandgap Voltage Reference Basics | |
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Circuits for Bandgap References | |
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Low-Voltage Bandgap Reference | |
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Current Reference | |
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Voltage Regulation | |
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Regulator Specifications | |
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Feedback Analysis | |
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Low Dropout Regulators | |
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Summary of Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Bipolar Devices And Circuits | |
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Bipolar-Junction Transistors | |
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Basic Operation | |
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Analog Figures of Merit | |
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Bipolar Device Model Summary | |
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SPICE Modeling | |
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Bipolar and BICMOS Processing | |
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Bipolar Processing | |
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Modern SiGe BiCMOS HBT Processing | |
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Mismatch in Bipolar Devices | |
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Bipolar Current Mirrors and Gain Stages | |
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Current Mirrors | |
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Emitter Follower | |
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Bipolar Differential Pair | |
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Appendix | |
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Bipolar Transistor Exponential Relationship | |
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Base Charge Storage of an Active BJT | |
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Summary of Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Noise And Linearity Analysis And Modelling | |
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Time-Domain Analysis | |
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Root Mean Square (rms) Value | |
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SNR | |
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Units of dBm | |
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Noise Summation | |
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Frequency-Domain Analysis | |
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Noise Spectral Density | |
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White Noise | |
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1/f, or Flicker, Noise | |
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Filtered Noise | |
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Noise Bandwidth | |
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Piecewise Integration of Noise | |
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1/f Noise Tangent Principle | |
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Noise Models for Circuit Elements | |
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Resistors | |
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Diodes | |
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Bipolar Transistors | |
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MOSFETS | |
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Opamps | |
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Capacitors and Inductors | |
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Sampled Signal Noise | |
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Input-Referred Noise | |
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Noise Analysis Examples | |
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Opamp Example | |
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Bipolar Common-Emitter Example | |
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CMOS Differential Pair Example | |
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Fiber-Optic Transimpedance Amplifier Example | |
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Dynamic Range Performance | |
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Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) | |
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Third-Order Intercept Point (IP3) | |
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Spurious-Free Dynamic Range (SFDR) | |
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Signal-to-Noise and Distortion Ratio (SNDR) | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Comparators | |
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Comparator Specifications | |
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Input Offset and Noise | |
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Hysteresis | |
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Using an Opamp for a Comparator | |
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Input-Offset Voltage Errors | |
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Charge-Injection Errors | |
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Making Charge-Injection Signal Independent | |
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Minimizing Errors Due to Charge-Injection | |
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Speed of Multi-Stage Comparators | |
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Latched Comparators | |
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Latch-Mode Time Constant | |
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Latch Offset | |
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Examples of CMOS and BiCMOS Comparators | |
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Input-Transistor Charge Trapping | |
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Examples of Bipolar Comparators | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Sample-And-Hold And Translinear Circuits | |
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Performance of Sample-and-Hold Circuits | |
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Testing Sample and Holds | |
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MOS Sample-and-Hold Basics | |
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Examples of CMOS S/H Circuits | |
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Bipolar and BiCMOS Sample-and-Holds | |
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Translinear Gain Cell | |
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Translinear Multiplier | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Continuous-Time Filters | |
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Introduction to Continuous-Time Filters | |
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First-Order Filters | |
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Second-Order Filters | |
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Introduction to Gm-C Filters | |
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Integrators and Summers | |
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Fully Differential Integrators | |
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First-Order Filter | |
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Biquad Filter | |
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Transconductors Using Fixed Resistors | |
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CMOS Transconductors Using Triode Transistors | |
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Transconductors Using a Fixed-Bias Triode Transistor | |
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Transconductors Using Varying Bias-Triode Transistors | |
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Transconductors Using Constant Drain-Source Voltages | |
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CMOS Transconductors Using Active Transistors | |
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CMOS Pair | |
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Constant Sum of Gate-Source Voltages | |
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Source-Connected Differential Pair | |
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Inverter-Based | |
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Differential-Pair with Floating Voltage Sources | |
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Bias-Offset Cross-Coupled Differential Pairs | |
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Bipolar Transconductors | |
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Gain-Cell Transconductors | |
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Transconductors Using Multiple Differential Pairs | |
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BiCMOS Transconductors | |
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Tunable MOS in Triode | |
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Fixed-Resistor Transconductor with a Translinear Multiplier | |
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Fixed Active MOS Transconductor with a Translinear Multiplier | |
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Active RC and MOSFET-C Filters | |
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Active RC Filters | |
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MOSFET-C Two-Transistor Integrators | |
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Four-Transistor Integrators | |
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R-MOSFET-C Filters | |
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Tuning Circuitry | |
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Tuning Overview | |
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Constant Transconductance | |
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Frequency Tuning | |
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Q-Factor Tuning | |
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Tuning Methods Based on Adaptive Filtering | |
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Introduction to Complex Filters | |
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Complex Signal Processing | |
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Complex Operations | |
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Complex Filters | |
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Frequency-Translated Analog Filters | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Discrete-Time Signals | |
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Overview of Some Signal Spectra | |
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Laplace Transforms of Discrete-Time Signals | |
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Spectra of Discrete-Time Signals | |
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z-Transform | |
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Downsampling and Upsampling | |
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Discrete-Time Filters | |
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Frequency Response of Discrete-Time Filters | |
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Stability of Discrete-Time Filters | |
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IIR and FIR Filters | |
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Bilinear Transform | |
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Sample-and-Hold Response | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Switched-Capacitor Circuits | |
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Basic Building Blocks | |
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Opamps | |
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Capacitors | |
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Switches | |
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Nonoverlapping Clocks | |
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Basic Operation and Analysis | |
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Resistor Equivalence of a Switched Capacitor | |
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Parasitic-Sensitive Integrator | |
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Parasitic-Insensitive Integrators | |
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Signal-Flow-Graph Analysis | |
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Noise in Switched-Capacitor Circuits | |
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First-Order Filters | |
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Switch Sharing | |
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Fully Differential Filters | |
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Biquad Filters | |
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Low-Q Biquad Filter | |
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High-Q Biquad Filter | |
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Charge Injection | |
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Switched-Capacitor Gain Circuits | |
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Parallel Resistor-Capacitor Circuit | |
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Resettable Gain Circuit | |
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Capacitive-Reset Gain Circuit | |
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Correlated Double-Sampling Techniques | |
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Other Switched-Capacitor Circuits | |
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Amplitude Modulator | |
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Full-Wave Rectifier | |
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Peak Detectors | |
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Voltage-Controlled Oscillator | |
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Sinusoidal Oscillator | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Data Converter Fundamentals | |
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Ideal D/A Converter | |
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Ideal A/D Converter | |
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Quantization Noise | |
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Deterministic Approach | |
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Stochastic Approach | |
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Signed Codes | |
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Performance Limitations | |
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Resolution | |
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Offset and Gain Error | |
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Accuracy and Linearity | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Nyquist-Rate D/A Converters | |
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Decoder-Based Converters | |
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Resistor String Converters | |
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Folded Resistor-String Converters | |
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Multiple Resistor-String Converters | |
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Signed Outputs | |
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Binary-Scaled Converters | |
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Binary-Weighted Resistor Converters | |
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Reduced-Resistance-Ratio Ladders | |
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R-2R-Based Converters | |
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Charge-Redistribution Switched-Capacitor Converters | |
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Current-Mode Converters | |
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Glitches | |
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Thermometer-Code Converters | |
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Thermometer-Code Current-Mode D/A Converters | |
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Single-Supply Positive-Output Converters | |
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Dynamically Matched Current Sources | |
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Hybrid Converters | |
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Resistor-Capacitor Hybrid Converters | |
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Segmented Converters | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Nyquist-Rate A/D Converters | |
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Integrating Converters | |
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Successive-Approximation Converters | |
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DAC-Based Successive Approximation | |
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Charge-Redistribution A/D | |
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Resistor-Capacitor Hybrid | |
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Speed Estimate for Charge-Redistribution Converters | |
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Error Correction in Successive-Approximation Converters | |
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Multi-Bit Successive-Approximation | |
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Algorithmic (or Cyclic) A/D Converter | |
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Ratio-Independent Algorithmic Converter | |
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Pipelined A/D Converters | |
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One-Bit-Per-Stage Pipelined Converter | |
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1.5 Bit Per Stage Pipelined Converter | |
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Pipelined Converter Circuits | |
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Generalized k-Bit-Per-Stage Pipelined Converters | |
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Flash Converters | |
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Issues in Designing Flash A/D Converters | |
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Two-Step A/D Converters | |
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Two-Step Converter with Digital Error Correction | |
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Interpolating A/D Converters | |
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Folding A/D Converters | |
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Time-Interleaved A/D Converters | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Oversampling Converters | |
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Oversampling without Noise Shaping | |
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Quantization Noise Modelling | |
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White Noise Assumption | |
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Oversampling Advantage | |
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The Advantage of 1-Bit D/A Converters | |
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Oversampling with Noise Shaping | |
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Noise-Shaped Delta-Sigma Modulator | |
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First-Order Noise Shaping | |
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Switched-Capacitor Realization of a First-Order A/D Converter | |
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Second-Order Noise Shaping | |
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Noise Transfer-Function Curves | |
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Quantization Noise Power of 1-Bit Modulators | |
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Error-Feedback Structure | |
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System Architectures | |
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System Architecture of Delta-Sigma A/D Converters | |
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System Architecture of Delta-Sigma D/A Converters | |
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Digital Decimation Filters | |
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Multi-Stage | |
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Single Stage | |
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Higher-Order Modulators | |
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Interpolative Architecture | |
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Multi-Stage Noise Shaping (MASH) Architecture | |
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Bandpass Oversampling Converters | |
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Practical Considerations | |
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Stability | |
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Linearity of Two-Level Converters | |
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Idle Tones | |
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Dithering | |
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Opamp Gain | |
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Multi-Bit Oversampling Converters | |
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Dynamic Element Matching | |
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Dynamically Matched Current Source D/S Converters | |
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Digital Calibration A/D Converter | |
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A/D with Both Multi-Bit and Single-Bit Feedback | |
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Third-Order A/D Design Example | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Phase-Locked Loops | |
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Basic Phase-Locked Loop Architecture | |
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Voltage Controlled Oscillator | |
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Divider | |
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Phase Detector | |
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Loop Filer | |
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The PLL in Lock | |
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Linearized Small-Signal Analysis | |
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Second-Order PLL Model | |
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Limitations of the Second-Order Small-Signal Model | |
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PLL Design Example | |
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Jitter and Phase Noise | |
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Period Jitter | |
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P-Cycle Jitter | |
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Adjacent Period Jitter | |
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Other Spectral Representations of Jitter | |
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Probability Density Function of Jitter | |
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Electronic Oscillators | |
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Ring Oscillators | |
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LC Oscillators | |
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Phase Noise of Oscillators | |
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Jitter and Phase Noise in PLLS | |
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Input Phase Noise and Divider Phase Noise | |
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VCO Phase Noise | |
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Loop Filter Noise | |
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Key Points | |
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References | |
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Problems | |
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Index | |