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Preface | |
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Acknowledgements | |
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List of Abbreviations | |
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Weight and Mass | |
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The Preliminaries | |
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Basic Principles | |
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The Atmosphere | |
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The Composition of Air | |
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The Measurement of Temperature | |
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Air Density | |
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The International Standard Atmosphere | |
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ISA Deviation | |
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JSA Deviation | |
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Height and Altitude | |
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Pressure Altitude | |
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Density Altitude | |
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The Physical Properties of Air | |
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Fluid Pressure | |
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Static Pressure | |
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Dynamic Pressure | |
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Basic Physics | |
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Newton's Laws of Motion | |
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Definitions | |
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First Law | |
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Second Law | |
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Third Law | |
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Constant-Acceleration Formulae | |
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The Equation of Impulse | |
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The Basic Gas Laws | |
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Boyles Law | |
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Charles' Law | |
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Pressure Law | |
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The Ideal Gas Equation | |
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The Conservation Laws | |
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Bernoulli's Theorem | |
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Viscosity | |
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The Equation of Continuity | |
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Reynolds Number | |
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Critical Reynolds Number (Recrit) | |
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Units of Measurement | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 1 | |
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Basic Aerodynamic Definitions | |
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Aerofoil Profile | |
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Aerofoil Attitude | |
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Wing Shape | |
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Wing Loading | |
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Weight and Mass | |
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The Newton | |
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Airspeeds | |
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Airspeed Indicator Reading (ASIR) | |
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Indicated Airspeed (IAS) | |
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Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) | |
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Rectified Airspeed (RAS) | |
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Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) | |
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True Airspeed (TAS) | |
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Mach Number | |
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Speed Summary | |
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The Effect of Altitude on Airspeeds | |
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Below the Tropopause | |
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Above the Tropopause | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 2 | |
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Basic Aerodynamics | |
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Basic Control | |
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Aeroplane Axes and Planes of Rotation | |
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The Longitudinal or Roll Axis | |
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The Lateral or Pitch Axis | |
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The Normal or Yaw Axis | |
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The Flight Controls | |
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The Elevators | |
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Pitch Control | |
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Control Surface Area | |
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Control Surface Angular Deflection | |
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The Moment Arm | |
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Angle of Attack | |
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Alternative Pitch Controls | |
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Variable Incidence Tailplane | |
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The Stabilator | |
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The Elevons | |
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The Rudder | |
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Yaw Control | |
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Control-Surface Area | |
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Control-Surface Deflection | |
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The Moment Arm | |
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Engine-Induced Yaw | |
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Asymmetric Engine Yawing Moment | |
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Asymmetric Rolling Moment | |
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Minimum Control Speeds | |
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For Take-off | |
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For Landing | |
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Vmc | |
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Vmcg | |
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The Effect of the Variables on Vmcg and Vmc | |
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Vmcl | |
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Vmcl (1 out) | |
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Vmcl-2 | |
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The Effect of the Variables on Vmcl | |
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The Ailerons | |
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Roll Control | |
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The Flaperon | |
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Wing Twist | |
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Geometric Twist | |
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Aerodynamic Twist | |
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Twisterons | |
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High-Speed Twist | |
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Low-Speed Ailerons | |
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High-Speed Ailerons | |
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Roll Spoilers | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 3 | |
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Lift Generation | |
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Turbulent Flow | |
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Streamline Flow | |
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The Boundary Layer | |
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The Laminar Boundary Layer | |
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The Transition Point | |
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The Turbulent Boundary Layer | |
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Leading-Edge Separation | |
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Boundary-Layer Control | |
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Blowing | |
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Suction | |
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Vortex Generators | |
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Two-Dimensional Flow | |
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The Stagnation Point | |
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Aerofoil Upper-Surface Airflow | |
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Aerofoil Lower-Surface Airflow | |
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Lift Production | |
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Symmetrical Aerofoils | |
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Cambered Aerofoils | |
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Negative Angles of Attack | |
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Small Positive Angles of Attack | |
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Large Positive Angles of Attack | |
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The Centre of Pressure (CP) | |
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Pitching Moments | |
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The Aerodynamic Centre | |
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Three-Dimensional Flow | |
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Wing-Tip Vortices | |
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Wake Turbulence | |
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Spanwise Lift Distribution | |
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The Effect of Wing Planform | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 4 | |
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Level-Flight Aerodynamics | |
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Lift Analysis | |
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The Four Forces | |
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Mass | |
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Lift Analysis | |
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The Factors Affecting Cl | |
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The Effect of Angle of Attack | |
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The Effect of the Wing Shape | |
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The Effect of Leading-Edge Radius | |
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The Effect of Camber | |
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The Effect of Aspect Ratio | |
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The Wing Planform | |
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The Effect of Sweepback | |
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The Effect of Airframe-Surface Condition | |
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The Effect of Reynolds Number | |
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The Relationship between Speeds, Angles of Attack and Cl | |
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Aerofoil Profiles | |
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High-Lift Aerofoils | |
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General-Purpose Aerofoils | |
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High-Speed Aerofoils | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 5 | |
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Lift Augmentation | |
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Wing Loading | |
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Clmax Augmentation | |
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Slats | |
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Automatic Slats | |
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Manual Slats | |
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Slots | |
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Flaps | |
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Leading-Edge Flaps | |
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The Krueger Flap | |
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The Drooped Leading Edge | |
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Trailing-Edge Flaps | |
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The Plain Trailing-Edge Flap | |
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The Split Trailing-Edge Flap | |
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The Slotted Trailing-Edge Flap | |
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The Fowler Flap | |
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The Effect of Trailing-Edge Flaps | |
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Leading- and Trailing-Edge Combinations | |
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The Effect of Sweepback on Flap | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 6 | |
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Drag | |
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Parasite (Profile) Drag | |
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Surface-Friction Drag | |
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Surface Area | |
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Coefficient of Viscosity | |
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Rate of Change of Airspeed | |
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Flow Transition | |
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Surface Condition | |
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Speed and Size | |
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Adverse Pressure Gradient | |
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Form (Pressure) Drag | |
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Interference Drag | |
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Induced Drag | |
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The Effect of Speed | |
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The Effect of Mass | |
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The Effect of Planform | |
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The Effect of Sweepback | |
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The Effect of Aspect Ratio | |
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The Effect of Flap | |
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The Effect of the CG Position | |
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Effects Summary | |
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Ground Effect | |
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Wing-Tip Design | |
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Wingspan Loading | |
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The Coefficient of Induced Drag (CDI) | |
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Total Drag | |
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Analysis of the Total-Drag Curve | |
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The Velocity of Minimum Drag (Vimd) | |
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The Velocity of MinimumPower(Vimp) | |
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The Maximum EAS/Drag Ratio (Vi/Dmax) Speed | |
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Speed Stability and Instability | |
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The Effect of the Variables on Total Drag | |
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The Effect of Altitude | |
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The Effect of Mass | |
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The Effect of Flap | |
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The Cl v Cd Polar Diagram | |
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Analysis of the Lift/Drag Ratio | |
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The Effect of Flap | |
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The Effect of Aspect Ratio | |
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The Effect of Mass | |
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Drag Augmentation | |
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Airbrakes | |
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Spoilers | |
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Flight Spoilers | |
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Ground Spoilers | |
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Roll Spoilers | |
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Barn-Door Flaps | |
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Drag Parachutes | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 7 | |
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Stalling | |
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The Stall | |
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The Boundary Layer | |
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Boundary-Layer Separation | |
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Trailing-Edge Separation | |
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Leading-Edge Separation | |
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The Low-Speed Stall | |
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Stalling Angle | |
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Factors Affecting the Low-Speed Stalling Angle | |
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Slat/Flap Setting | |
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Ice Accretion | |
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Effect on Take-off and Landing | |
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Take-Off | |
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Landing | |
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Reduced Stalling Angle | |
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Abnormal Stalling Characteristics | |
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Heavy Rain | |
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The Effect of Wing Design on the Low-Speed Stall | |
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Swept Wings | |
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Elliptical Wings | |
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Rectangular Wings | |
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Straight Tapered Wings | |
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Spanwise-Flow Attenuation Devices | |
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The Wing Fence | |
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The Sawtooth Leading Edge | |
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The Notched Leading Edge | |
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Vortex Generators | |
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Wing-Tip Stalling | |
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The Effect of Flap | |
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The Prevention of Wing-Tip Stalling | |
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Washout | |
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Root Spoiler | |
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Changing Camber | |
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Slats and Slots | |
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Aspect Ratio | |
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Stalling Characteristics | |
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Ideal Stalling Characteristics | |
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Swept-Wing Stalling Characteristics | |
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Summary of Factors Affecting the Stalling Angle | |
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Stall Warning | |
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Aerodynamic Stall Warning | |
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Mechanical Stall Warning | |
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The Flapper Switch | |
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The Angle of Attack Sensor | |
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Stick Shakers | |
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Stick Pushers | |
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Stalling Speed | |
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Factors Affecting Stalling Speed | |
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Centre of Gravity (CG) | |
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Forward CG | |
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Disadvantage | |
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Advantage | |
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Aft CG | |
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Disadvantage | |
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Advantage | |
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Mass | |
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Altitude | |
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Configuration | |
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Ice Accretion | |
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Wing Planform | |
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Summary of Factor Effects on Stalling Speed | |
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The Speed Boundary | |
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The Effect of a Gust on the Load Factor | |
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Turn Stalling Speed | |
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Stalling-Speed Definitions | |
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Vclmax | |
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Vms | |
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Vms0 | |
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Vms1 | |
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Vs | |
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Vs0 | |
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Vs1 | |
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Vs1g | |
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Vsr | |
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Vsr0 | |
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Vsr1 | |
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Other Types of Stall | |
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The Deep Stall | |
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The Accelerated Stall | |
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The Power-On Stall | |
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The Shock Stall | |
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Stall Recovery | |
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The Low-speed Stall | |
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The Deep Stall | |
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The Accelerated Stall | |
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The Power-On Stall | |
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The Shock Stall | |
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The Spin | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 8 | |
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Thrust and Power in Level Flight | |
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Thrust | |
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Analysis of the Thrust Curves | |
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Thrust Available | |
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Thrust Required | |
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Maximum Speed (EAS) | |
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The Effect of the Variables on Thrust | |
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Altitude | |
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Mass | |
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Asymmetric Flight | |
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Centre of Gravity | |
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Power | |
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Analysis of the Power Curves | |
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Maximum TAS | |
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Vmp and Vmd | |
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The Effect of the Variables on Power | |
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Altitude | |
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Mass | |
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Summary | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 9 | |
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Advanced Control | |
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Wing Torsion and Flexing | |
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Wing Flutter | |
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Torsional Flexural Flutter | |
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Aileron Flutter | |
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Torsional Aileron Flutter | |
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Flexural Aileron Flutter | |
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The Mass Balance | |
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Divergence | |
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Control Secondary Effects | |
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Adverse Yaw | |
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Counteraction Devices | |
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Rudder/Aileron Coupling | |
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Slot/Aileron Coupling | |
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Spoiler/Aileron Coupling | |
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Differential Aileron Deflection | |
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Frise Ailerons | |
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Control-Surface Operation | |
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Aerodynamic Balance Methods | |
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The Hinge Balance | |
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The Horn Balance | |
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The Internal Balance | |
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The Balance Tab | |
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The Antibalance Tab | |
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The Spring Tab | |
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The Servo Tab | |
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Primary Control-Surface Trimming | |
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Variable Trim Tabs | |
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Fixed Trim Tabs | |
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Stabilizer Trim Setting | |
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Powered Controls | |
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Power-Assisted Controls | |
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Fully Powered Controls | |
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Artificial Feel | |
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The Simple System | |
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The Servo-Assisted Hydraulic System | |
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Fly-by-Wire | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 10 | |
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Stability | |
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Static Stability | |
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Static Stability | |
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The Effect of the Variables on Static Stability | |
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Directional Static Stability | |
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Yaw and Sideslip | |
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The Directional Restoring Moment | |
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Fin and Rudder Design | |
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The Dorsal Fin | |
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The Ventral Fin | |
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The Moment Arm | |
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Aeroplane Design Features Affecting Directional Static Stability | |
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Fuselage | |
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Wing | |
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Dihedral | |
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Sweepback | |
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Propeller Slipstream | |
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Neutral Directional Static Stability | |
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Lateral Static Stability | |
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Aeroplane Design Features Affecting Lateral Static Stability | |
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Increased Lateral Static Stability | |
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Decreased Lateral Static Stability | |
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Sideslip Angle and Rolling Moment Coefficient | |
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Analysis of Design Feature Effects | |
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Wing Contribution | |
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Dihedral | |
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Anhedral | |
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Sweepback | |
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Wing/Fuselage Interference | |
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Shielding Effect | |
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Wing Location | |
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Fuselage/Fin | |
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Fin Size | |
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Ventral Fin | |
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Handling Considerations | |
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Propeller Slipstream | |
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Crosswind Landings | |
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Flaps | |
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Longitudinal Static Stability | |
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The Centre of Pressure (CP) | |
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The Neutral Point (NP) | |
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Types of Static Neutral Point | |
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The Stick-Free Static Neutral Point | |
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The Stick-Fixed Static Neutral Point | |
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The Effect of the CG at the NP | |
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The Aerodynamic Centre (AC) | |
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The Centre of Gravity (CG) | |
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The CG Envelope | |
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CG Envelope Limitations | |
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CG Movement | |
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The Effect of CG at the Limits | |
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CG at the Forward Limit | |
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CG at the Aft Limit | |
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The Static Margin (SM) | |
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The Trim Point (TP) | |
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Longitudinal Dihedral | |
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Aircraft-Design Variations | |
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The Effect of the Variables on Longitudinal Static Stability | |
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Elevator Deflection | |
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Trim | |
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The Fuselage | |
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Angle of Attack | |
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Configuration | |
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Trailing-Edge Flaps | |
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Undercarriage | |
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Stick-Fixed Longitudinal Static Stability | |
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Stick-Position Stability | |
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Stick-Free Longitudinal Static Stability | |
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Stick Force | |
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Certification Standard Stick-Force Requirements | |
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Class 'A' Aeroplanes CS 25.173(c) | |
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Class 'B' Aeroplanes CS 23.173(c) | |
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The Effect of CG Position on Stick Force | |
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Longitudinal Static Manoeuvre Stability | |
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The Manoeuvre Point | |
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Factors Affecting Stick Force | |
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Summary | |
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The Effect of Atmospheric Conditions | |
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Ice Accretion | |
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Heavy Rain | |
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Altitude | |
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The Factors Affecting Static Stability | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 11 | |
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Dynamic Stability | |
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Longitudinal Dynamic Stability | |
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The Phugoid | |
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Short-Period Oscillation | |
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Factors Affecting Longitudinal Dynamic Stability | |
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Lateral Dynamic Stability | |
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Sideslip | |
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Rolling | |
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Spiral | |
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Dutch Roll | |
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Spiral Instability | |
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Dutch Roll | |
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Asymmetric Thrust | |
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Aerodynamic Damping | |
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Summary | |
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The Factors Affecting Dynamic Stability | |
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General | |
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Longitudinal | |
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Lateral | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 12 | |
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Manoeuvre Aerodynamics | |
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Level-Flight Manouevres | |
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The Manoeuvre Envelope | |
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The Flight Load Factor | |
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Manoeuvre-Envelope Limitations | |
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The Stalling Speed | |
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The 'g' Limitation | |
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The Manoeuvre-Envelope Limiting Parameters | |
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The Manoeuvre-Envelope Maximum-Speed Limitation | |
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Stalling and Design Speed Definitions | |
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Limiting Speeds | |
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The Gust Envelope | |
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The Load Factor | |
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The Gust Load Factor | |
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Buffet | |
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Low-Speed Buffet | |
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High-Speed Buffet | |
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The Buffet Onset Boundary Chart | |
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Turns | |
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The Load Factor in a Turn | |
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The Turn Radius | |
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Rate of Turn | |
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Turn and Slip Indications | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 13 | |
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Climb and Descent Aerodynamics | |
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Climbing Flight | |
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The Forces in a Climb | |
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The Effect of the Variables on the Climb | |
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Altitude | |
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Mass | |
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Flap Setting | |
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Wind Component | |
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Climb Gradient | |
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Climb-Gradient Calculations | |
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Method 1 | |
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Method 2 | |
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Rate of Climb | |
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Rate-of-Climb Calculations | |
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Vx and Vy | |
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Vx | |
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Vy | |
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Aircraft Ceiling | |
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Vy at the Absolute Ceiling | |
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Piston/Propeller Aeroplanes | |
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Jet Aeroplanes | |
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The Effect of the Variables on Vx and Vy | |
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Mass | |
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Flap | |
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Altitude | |
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Temperature | |
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Wind Component | |
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The Effect of Climbing-Speed Variations | |
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Factors Affecting the Climb | |
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The Glide Descent | |
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The Glide Variables | |
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Gliding for Maximum Range | |
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The Effect of the Variables on a Glide Descent | |
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Speed | |
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Wind Component | |
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Mass | |
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Angle of Attack | |
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Flap | |
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Gliding for Maximum Endurance | |
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Climbing and Descending Turns | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 14 | |
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Other Aerodynamic Considerations | |
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High-Speed Flight | |
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General Introduction | |
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High-Speed Definitions | |
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High-Speed Calculations | |
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The Shockwave | |
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Compressibility | |
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Shockwave Formation | |
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Air-Pressure-Wave Patterns | |
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Subsonic | |
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Sonic | |
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Supersonic | |
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The Shockwave Deflection Angle | |
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The High-Speed CP | |
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Critical Mach Number (Mcrit) | |
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The Effect of a Shockwave | |
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Wave Drag | |
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Drag Divergence Mach Number | |
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The Flying Controls | |
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The Effect of the Aerofoil Profile | |
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Thickness/Chord Ratio | |
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Wing Camber | |
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Swept Wings | |
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The Effect of Sweepback | |
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The Advantages of Sweepback | |
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Increased Mcrit | |
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Aerodynamic Effects | |
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The Disadvantages of Sweepback | |
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Remedial Design Features | |
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Low-Speed Ailerons | |
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High-Speed Ailerons | |
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Area Rule | |
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High-Speed-Flight Characteristics | |
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High-Speed Buffet | |
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Tuck Under | |
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The Shock Stall | |
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The Buffet Boundary | |
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Coffin Corner | |
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Speed Instability | |
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The Mach Trimmer | |
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Lateral Instability | |
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The Supercritical Wing | |
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Supersonic Airflow | |
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The Convex Corner Mach Wave | |
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The Concave-Corner Shockwave | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 15 | |
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Propellers | |
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Propeller Definitions | |
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Basic Principles | |
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Factors Affecting Propeller Efficiency | |
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Airspeed | |
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Fixed-Pitch Propellers | |
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Variable-Pitch Propellers | |
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Power Absorption | |
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Propeller-Blade Shape | |
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Blade Length | |
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Blade Chord | |
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Propeller-Blade Number | |
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Solidity | |
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The Effects of a Propeller on Aeroplane Performance | |
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Torque | |
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Slipstream Effect | |
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Asymmetric Blade | |
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Gyroscopic Effect | |
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Propeller Forces and Moments | |
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Centrifugal Force (CF) | |
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Centrifugal Twisting Moment (CTM) | |
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Aerodynamic Twisting Moment (ATM) | |
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Propeller-Blade Positions | |
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The Constant-Speed Unit (CSU) | |
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Propeller Windmilling | |
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Propeller Feathering | |
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Reverse Pitch | |
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The Effect of a Constant Speed Propeller On a Glide Descent | |
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Engine Failure | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 16 | |
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Operational Considerations | |
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Runway-Surface Contamination | |
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Surface Contaminants | |
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Standing Water | |
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Slush | |
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Wet Snow | |
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Dry Snow | |
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Very Dry Snow | |
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Compacted Snow | |
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Ice | |
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Specially Prepared Winter Runway | |
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Mixtures | |
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Contaminant Drag | |
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Water-Equivalent Depth | |
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The Effect of Runway Contamination | |
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Take-off | |
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Aeroplane Contamination | |
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The Effect of Heavy Rain | |
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The Effect of Propeller Icing | |
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The Effect of Airframe Icing | |
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The Effect of Airframe-Surface Damage | |
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The Effect of Turbulence | |
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Windshear | |
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The Effect of Windshear | |
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Energy Loss | |
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Energy Gain | |
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Downdraught | |
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Take-off | |
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Landing | |
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Countering Windshear | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 17 | |
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Conclusion | |
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Summary | |
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Aerofoil-Profile Definitions | |
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Aerofoil-Attitude Definitions | |
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Wing-Shape Definitions | |
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High-Speed Definitions | |
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Propeller Definitions | |
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V Speeds | |
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PoF Formulae | |
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Drag | |
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Wing Loading/Load Factor | |
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Stalling Speed Calculations | |
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Mass Change | |
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Load Factor | |
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Turn | |
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Design Manoeuvre Speed (Va) | |
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Turn Details | |
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Radius of Turn | |
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Rate of Turn | |
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ClimbCalculations | |
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Descent Calculations | |
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Maximum Glide Range | |
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Mach Angle (_) Calculation | |
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KEY FACTS | |
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Stalling | |
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The Maximum Coefficient of Lift (Clmax) | |
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The Critical Angle | |
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The Stalling Speed | |
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Stability | |
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Static Stability | |
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Dynamic Stability | |
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The Stick Force | |
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The Gust Load Factor | |
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Propellers | |
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Propeller Efficiency | |
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Fixed Pitch Angle of Attack | |
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Propeller Gyroscopic Effect | |
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The Effect of the Variables on Performance | |
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Airframe Surface | |
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Airframe Surface | |
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Altitude | |
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Aspect Ratio | |
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Camber | |
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CG Position | |
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Flap | |
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Sweepback | |
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Dihedral | |
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Mass | |
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Self-Assessment Exercise 18 | |
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Solutions | |
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Vx and Vy Mathematical Proof | |
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Index | |