| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Domain of Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| Elements of Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| Adherence | |
| |
| |
| Appropriate Decision Makers | |
| |
| |
| Spheres | |
| |
| |
| Claims | |
| |
| |
| Support | |
| |
| |
| Argument | |
| |
| |
| Criticism | |
| |
| |
| Elements of Critical Decision Making | |
| |
| |
| Toleration of Uncertainty | |
| |
| |
| Critical Thinking--The Internal Dialogue | |
| |
| |
| Dialectic--The External Dialogue | |
| |
| |
| Rhetoric | |
| |
| |
| Acting Within Uncertainty | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Critical Appraisal of Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| Argumentation and Being Reasonable | |
| |
| |
| Why People Advance Unreasonable Arguments | |
| |
| |
| Beliefs are Not Necessarily Reasonable | |
| |
| |
| Thinking is Not Necessarily Reasonable | |
| |
| |
| The Mind is Not Necessarily Reasonable | |
| |
| |
| Social Influence is Not Necessarily Reasonable | |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of Reasonable Arguments | |
| |
| |
| The Bases of Reason in Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| Starting Points for Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| Spheres | |
| |
| |
| Definition of Spheres | |
| |
| |
| Location of Spheres | |
| |
| |
| Spheres and Level of Activity | |
| |
| |
| Ultimate Purpose | |
| |
| |
| Adjusting Arguments to Spheres | |
| |
| |
| Common Patterns of Criteria | |
| |
| |
| Logic | |
| |
| |
| Good Reasons | |
| |
| |
| Science | |
| |
| |
| A Good Story | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analysis in Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| Terms in Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| Claim | |
| |
| |
| Issue | |
| |
| |
| Proposition | |
| |
| |
| Purpose of Analysis in Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| Critical Analysis to Find a Proposition | |
| |
| |
| Identify the Question | |
| |
| |
| Survey Implicated Objectives and Values | |
| |
| |
| Canvass Alternative Decisions | |
| |
| |
| Weigh the Costs and Risks | |
| |
| |
| Search for New Information | |
| |
| |
| Criticize the Alternatives | |
| |
| |
| Note Your Biases that Block Alternatives | |
| |
| |
| Select a Proposition | |
| |
| |
| Critical Analysis of a Proposition | |
| |
| |
| Determining the Issues | |
| |
| |
| Rank-Order the Issues | |
| |
| |
| Stock Issue Analysis | |
| |
| |
| Comparative Advantage | |
| |
| |
| Analysis of Claims | |
| |
| |
| Identify the Most Significant Claims | |
| |
| |
| Clarify What Each Claim Asserts | |
| |
| |
| Locate the Points of Disagreement | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| Argument in Favor of Proposition 6 | |
| |
| |
| Argument Against Proposition 6 | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Case Building | |
| |
| |
| Preliminary Steps in Case Building | |
| |
| |
| Follow Critical Decision Making | |
| |
| |
| Identify the Nature of the Proposition | |
| |
| |
| Assess Presumptions and Burden of Proof | |
| |
| |
| Briefing Arguments | |
| |
| |
| The Elements of the Brief | |
| |
| |
| An Example of a Brief | |
| |
| |
| Developing a Convincing Vision | |
| |
| |
| Learn the Decision Makers' Vision | |
| |
| |
| Tell the Story of Your Vision | |
| |
| |
| Consider an Example | |
| |
| |
| Communication to Specific Decision Makers | |
| |
| |
| What Are the Communication Constraints? | |
| |
| |
| What Counterargument Will Occur? | |
| |
| |
| What Argumentative Format Will Be Used? | |
| |
| |
| What Are the Rules of the Sphere? | |
| |
| |
| How Will the Decision Be Made? | |
| |
| |
| What Critical Values Will Be Applied? | |
| |
| |
| What Sequence of Claims Is Most Appropriate? | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analysis and Case Building in Law | |
| |
| |
| The Trial | |
| |
| |
| Analysis Through Critical Decision Making | |
| |
| |
| Building the Case | |
| |
| |
| The Appeal | |
| |
| |
| Appellate Brief | |
| |
| |
| The Attorney General's Response | |
| |
| |
| The Appellate Decision | |
| |
| |
| The Impact of the Trial | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Nature of Arguments | |
| |
| |
| The Model of an Argument | |
| |
| |
| Claim | |
| |
| |
| Grounds | |
| |
| |
| Warrant | |
| |
| |
| Backing | |
| |
| |
| Qualifier | |
| |
| |
| Rebuttal and Reservation | |
| |
| |
| Types of Arguments | |
| |
| |
| Argument by Generalization | |
| |
| |
| Argument by Cause | |
| |
| |
| Argument by Sign | |
| |
| |
| Argument by Analogy | |
| |
| |
| Argument from Authority | |
| |
| |
| Definition as Argument | |
| |
| |
| Formal Definition | |
| |
| |
| Definition by Example | |
| |
| |
| Functional Definition | |
| |
| |
| Definition by Analogy | |
| |
| |
| Definition by Authority | |
| |
| |
| The Analysis of Arguments | |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of Arguments | |
| |
| |
| Guidelines for Analyzing Arguments | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Support: Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Forms of Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Example | |
| |
| |
| Statistics | |
| |
| |
| Testimony | |
| |
| |
| General Principles for the Use of Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Use Representative Instances | |
| |
| |
| Use a Sufficient Number of Instances | |
| |
| |
| Account for Negative Instances | |
| |
| |
| Give the Value Characteristics of Instances | |
| |
| |
| Make Instances Seem Real with Details | |
| |
| |
| Use Decision Makers' Experience | |
| |
| |
| Use Current Examples and Statistics | |
| |
| |
| Use Reliable Sources for Instances and Statistics | |
| |
| |
| Carefully Consider Statistical Measures | |
| |
| |
| Use Comparison to Clarify Statistics | |
| |
| |
| Base Testimony on Credibility Measures | |
| |
| |
| Sphere Dependence of Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Hearsay Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Ordinary and Expert Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Reluctant Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Negative Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Documented Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Assertion and Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Argument and Evidence in Science | |
| |
| |
| The Tradition of Argumentation in Science | |
| |
| |
| Claims of Fact | |
| |
| |
| Search for Truth over Personal Gain | |
| |
| |
| Testable Results | |
| |
| |
| Established Theory Changes Slowly | |
| |
| |
| Scientific Use of Argument Types | |
| |
| |
| Argument by Generalization | |
| |
| |
| Argument by Cause | |
| |
| |
| Argument by Sign | |
| |
| |
| Argument by Analogy | |
| |
| |
| Argument from Authority | |
| |
| |
| Scientific Use of Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Empirically Grounded Claims | |
| |
| |
| Specific Instances | |
| |
| |
| Statistics in Science | |
| |
| |
| Testimony | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Evidence and Argument in Religion | |
| |
| |
| Major Questions in Religious Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| What is the Nature of God? | |
| |
| |
| What is the Nature of Human Beings? | |
| |
| |
| What is Moral Behavior? | |
| |
| |
| What is the Meaning of Suffering? | |
| |
| |
| What is the Human's Relationship to God? | |
| |
| |
| What is the Nature of Immortality? | |
| |
| |
| What is the Role of the Church? | |
| |
| |
| Texts as Evidence in Religious Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| What Texts are Most Accurate? | |
| |
| |
| What Texts are Most Trustworthy? | |
| |
| |
| How Are Texts Interpreted? | |
| |
| |
| What Factors Affect Interpretation? | |
| |
| |
| Preferred Argument Forms | |
| |
| |
| Argument from General Principle | |
| |
| |
| Argument by Analogy | |
| |
| |
| Argument by Sign | |
| |
| |
| Argument by Paradox | |
| |
| |
| Argument by Generalization | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Support: Values | |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of Values | |
| |
| |
| Stated and Implied Values | |
| |
| |
| Positive and Negative Values | |
| |
| |
| Terminal and Instrumental Values | |
| |
| |
| Abstract and Concrete Values | |
| |
| |
| Values Appear in Systems | |
| |
| |
| Traditional Value Systems | |
| |
| |
| Values Are Graded in Systems | |
| |
| |
| General Principles for the Use of Values | |
| |
| |
| Values May Be Found Anywhere in an Argument | |
| |
| |
| Recognize Values in Warrants | |
| |
| |
| Find the Values in the Arguments of Others | |
| |
| |
| Recognize the Limits of Value Change | |
| |
| |
| Find the Best Point of Attack on Values | |
| |
| |
| Relate Your Values to Decision Makers | |
| |
| |
| Use Evidence and Argument to Develop Values | |
| |
| |
| Sphere Dependence of Values | |
| |
| |
| Values in Scientific Argument | |
| |
| |
| Values in Religion | |
| |
| |
| The Relation of Science and Religion | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Support: Credibility | |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of Credibility | |
| |
| |
| Competence and Trustworthiness | |
| |
| |
| Goodwill and Dynamism | |
| |
| |
| Forms of Credibility | |
| |
| |
| Direct Credibility | |
| |
| |
| Secondary Credibility | |
| |
| |
| Indirect Credibility | |
| |
| |
| General Principles for the Use of Credibility | |
| |
| |
| Develop Credibility from Reputation | |
| |
| |
| Be Sincere | |
| |
| |
| Identify with Decision Makers' Values | |
| |
| |
| Use Evidence to Build Credibility | |
| |
| |
| Use Organization to Build Credibility | |
| |
| |
| Argue Issues, Not People | |
| |
| |
| Understand Credibility as Dynamic | |
| |
| |
| Sphere Dependence of Credibility | |
| |
| |
| The Reputation of the Arguer | |
| |
| |
| Secondary Credibility in Spheres | |
| |
| |
| Indirect Credibility in Spheres | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Values and Credibility in Business | |
| |
| |
| The Nature of Business Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| Argumentation in a Retail Setting | |
| |
| |
| Argumentation in a Manufacturing Setting | |
| |
| |
| Business in American Society | |
| |
| |
| The Concept of Business | |
| |
| |
| Government and Business | |
| |
| |
| Voluntary Social Action | |
| |
| |
| Credibility in Business Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| Organizational Credibility | |
| |
| |
| Managerial Credibility | |
| |
| |
| Consultant/Specialist Credibility | |
| |
| |
| Product Credibility | |
| |
| |
| Values in Business Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| The Future | |
| |
| |
| Success in Business | |
| |
| |
| Cost/Benefit | |
| |
| |
| Competition | |
| |
| |
| Production/Consumption | |
| |
| |
| Context of Business Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| Organizational Culture | |
| |
| |
| Contextualizing Values | |
| |
| |
| Sensemaking in Organizations | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Refutation | |
| |
| |
| The Process of Refutation | |
| |
| |
| Approaching Refutation | |
| |
| |
| Setting a Framework for Refutation | |
| |
| |
| Assess the Argumentative Situation | |
| |
| |
| Analyze the Decision Makers | |
| |
| |
| Analyze Opponents | |
| |
| |
| Selecting a Posture for Refutation | |
| |
| |
| Refute from a Constructive Basis | |
| |
| |
| Defend Your Position | |
| |
| |
| Keep the Focus on the Goals of Decision Making | |
| |
| |
| Engage in Framebreaking | |
| |
| |
| Test the Credibility of Other Factions | |
| |
| |
| Stop the Momentum | |
| |
| |
| Deny Support | |
| |
| |
| Communicating Refutation | |
| |
| |
| Block Arguments | |
| |
| |
| Probe Opponents | |
| |
| |
| Follow Good Communication Practices | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Refutation by Fallacy Claims | |
| |
| |
| Views of Fallacy | |
| |
| |
| Fallacy as Incorrect Logic | |
| |
| |
| Fallacy as Sophistry | |
| |
| |
| Fallacies as Violations of Discussion Rules | |
| |
| |
| Using Fallacy Claims in Refutation | |
| |
| |
| Social Guides to Fallacy Claims | |
| |
| |
| Intent to Deceive | |
| |
| |
| Refusal to Reason | |
| |
| |
| Breach of Conversational Cooperation | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Refutation in Government and Politics | |
| |
| |
| The Nature of Political Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| The Claims of Political Argumentation | |
| |
| |
| The Content of Political Claims | |
| |
| |
| The Development of Political Claims | |
| |
| |
| Refutation in Government and Politics | |
| |
| |
| Refutation in Committee Hearings | |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of Hearings | |
| |
| |
| Using the Record in Hearings | |
| |
| |
| Focus for the Record in Hearings | |
| |
| |
| The Forms of Refutation in Hearings | |
| |
| |
| Telling Good Stories | |
| |
| |
| Refutation in Legislative Action | |
| |
| |
| Refutation Is Usually Not Confrontational | |
| |
| |
| Refutation Is Usually Not Personal | |
| |
| |
| The Amendment Process as Refutation | |
| |
| |
| Refutation Has an Important Credibility Function | |
| |
| |
| Relations Between Legislature and the Executive | |
| |
| |
| Argumentation in Political Campaigns | |
| |
| |
| Campaigns Involve Issues and Images | |
| |
| |
| Campaign Arguments Are Linked to "The People" | |
| |
| |
| Telling the Right Story | |
| |
| |
| Maintaining the Story | |
| |
| |
| Media and Refutation | |
| |
| |
| The Special Role of Debates | |
| |
| |
| Refutation in the Political Campaign | |
| |
| |
| Refutation Is Usually About Testing Proposals With Values | |
| |
| |
| Evidence Is Important in Refutation | |
| |
| |
| Credibility Is Significant in Refutation | |
| |
| |
| The Story Is Significant in Refutation | |
| |
| |
| Leave No Shot Unanswered | |
| |
| |
| Refutation By Inoculation | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Projects | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Index | |