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| Negotiation Fundamentals | |
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| The Nature of Negotiation | |
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| Joe and Sue Carter | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Characteristics of a Negotiation or Bargaining Situation | |
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| Interdependence | |
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| Mutual Adjustment | |
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| Interdependence and Perceptions | |
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| Conflict | |
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| Definitions. Levels of Conflict | |
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| Functions and Dysfunctions of Conflict | |
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| Factors That Make Conflict Difficult to Manage | |
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| Conflict Management | |
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| Approaches by the Parties Themselves | |
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| Approaches by Other Parties | |
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| Summary | |
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| Overview of the Chapters in This Book | |
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| Negotiation: Framing, Strategizing, and Planning | |
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| Framing the Problem--the Process of Defining What's Important | |
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| Why Frames Are Critical to Understanding Strategy | |
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| Major Approaches to Understanding Frames | |
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| Frames as a Process of Issue Development | |
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| Goals--the Objectives That Drive a Negotiation Strategy | |
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| Simultaneous Development of Goals and Frames | |
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| Direct Effects of Goals on Choice of Strategy | |
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| Indirect Effects of Goals on Choice of Strategy | |
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| Strategy--the Overall Plan to Achieve One's Goals | |
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| Strategy, Tactics, or Planning? | |
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| Strategic Options--Vehicles for Achieving Goals | |
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| Understanding the Flow of Negotiations: Stages and Phases | |
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| Phase Models of Negotiation | |
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| Getting Ready to Implement the Strategy: The Planning Process | |
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| Understanding the Need for Planning | |
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| Defining the Issues | |
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| Assembling Issues and Defining the Bargaining Mix | |
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| Defining Your Interests | |
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| Consulting with Others | |
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| Assessing the Other's Priorities | |
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| Knowing Your Limits | |
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| Setting Targets | |
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| Developing Supporting Arguments--Research | |
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| Analyzing the Other Party | |
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| Summary on the Planning Process | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| Strategy and Tactics of Distributive Bargaining | |
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| The Distributive Bargaining Situation | |
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| The Role of Alternatives to a Negotiated Agreement | |
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| Settlement Point | |
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| Bargaining Mix | |
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| Fundamental Strategies | |
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| Discovering the Other Party's Resistance Point | |
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| Influencing the Other Party's Resistance Point | |
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| Tactical Tasks | |
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| Assess Outcome Values and the Costs of Termination | |
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| Manage the Other Party's Impressions | |
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| Modify the Other Party's Perceptions | |
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| Manipulate the Actual Costs of Delay or Termination | |
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| Positions Taken during Negotiation | |
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| Opening Offer | |
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| Opening Stance | |
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| Initial Concessions | |
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| Role of Concessions | |
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| Pattern of Concession Making | |
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| Final Offer | |
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| Commitment | |
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| Tactical Considerations in Using Commitments | |
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| Establishing a Commitment | |
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| Preventing the Other Party from Committing Prematurely | |
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| Finding Ways to Abandon a Committed Position | |
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| Closing the Deal | |
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| Hardball Tactics | |
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| Dealing with Typical Hardball Tactics | |
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| Typical Hardball Tactics | |
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| Summary | |
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| Strategy and Tactics of Integrative Negotiation | |
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| Introduction | |
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| What Makes Integrative Negotiation Different? | |
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| An Overview of the Integrative Negotiation Process | |
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| Creating a Free Flow of Information | |
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| Attempting to Understand the Other Negotiator's Real Needs and Objectives | |
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| Emphasizing the Commonalities between the Parties and Minimizing the Differences | |
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| Searching for Solutions That Meet the Goals and Objectives of Both Sides | |
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| Key Steps in the Integrative Negotiation Process | |
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| Identify and Define the Problem | |
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| Understand the Problem Fully--Identify Interests and Needs | |
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| Generate Alternative Solutions | |
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| Evaluation and Selection of Alternatives | |
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| Factors That Facilitate Successful Integrative Negotiation | |
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| Some Common Objective or Goal | |
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| Faith in One's Own Problem-Solving Ability | |
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| A Belief in the Validity of One's Own Position and the Other's Perspective | |
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| The Motivation and Commitment to Work Together | |
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| Trust. Clear and Accurate Communication | |
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| An Understanding of the Dynamics of Integrative Negotiation | |
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| Summary | |
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| Why Integrative Negotiation Is Difficult to Achieve | |
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| The History of the Relationship between the Parties | |
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| The Belief That an Issue Can Only Be Resolved Distributively | |
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| The Mixed-Motive Nature of Most Negotiating Situations | |
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| Summary | |
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| Negotiation Subprocesses | |
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| Communication, Perception, and Cognitive Biases | |
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| Communication in Negotiation | |
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| What Is Communicated during Negotiation? | |
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| How People Communicate in Negotiation | |
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| Phase Models of Communication in Negotiation | |
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| Perception and Negotiation | |
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| The Role of Perception | |
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| Perceptual Distortion in Negotiation | |
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| Framing | |
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| Perceptual Error: A Summary | |
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| Cognitive Biases in Negotiation | |
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| Irrational Escalation of Commitment | |
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| Mythical Fixed-Pie Beliefs | |
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| Anchoring and Adjustment | |
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| Framing | |
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| Availability of Information | |
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| The Winner's Curse | |
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| Overconfidence | |
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| The Law of Small Numbers | |
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| Self-serving Biases | |
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| Ignoring Others' Cognitions | |
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| Reactive Devaluation | |
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| Managing Misperceptions and Cognitive Biases in Negotiation | |
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| Reframing | |
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| How to Improve Communication in Negotiation | |
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| The Use of Questions. Listening | |
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| Role Reversal | |
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| Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation | |
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| Special Communication Considerations at the Close of Negotiations | |
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| Avoiding Fatal Mistakes | |
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| Achieving Closure | |
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| Summary | |
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| Finding and Using Negotiation Leverage | |
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| Leverage as Advantage: Why Is Power Important to Negotiators? | |
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| A Definition of Power | |
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| Sources of Power--How People Acquire Power | |
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| Information and Expertise | |
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| Control over Resources | |
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| Power Derived from Location in an Organizational Structure | |
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| Managing Information Power: The Persuasion Process | |
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| Characteristics of Messages | |
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| Message Content. Message Structure | |
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| Persuasive Style: How to Pitch the Message | |
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| Characteristics of Sources | |
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| Source Credibility | |
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| Personal Attractiveness | |
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| Summary | |
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| Characteristics of Receivers | |
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| Attending to the Other | |
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| Exploring or Ignoring the Other's Position | |
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| Resisting the Other's Influence | |
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| Section Summary | |
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| Context Factors | |
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| Reciprocity. Commitment | |
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| Social Proof | |
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| Use of Reward and Punishment | |
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| Location in a Structure | |
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| Scarcity | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| Ethics in Negotiation | |
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| Why Do Negotiators Need to Know about Ethics? | |
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| What Are Ethics and Why Do They Apply to Negotiation? | |
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| What Are the Major Ethical Concerns That Apply to Negotiation? | |
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| End-Result Ethics | |
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| Rule Ethics | |
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| Social Contract Ethics | |
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| Personalistic Ethics | |
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| What Major Types of Ethical and Unethical Conduct Are Likely to Occur in Negotiation? | |
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| The Range of Available Influence Tactics | |
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| Types of Tactics Viewed as Ethically Problematic | |
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| Typologies of Deceptive Tactics | |
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| Intentions and Motives to Use Deceptive Tactics | |
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| The Motivation to Behave Unethically | |
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| The Consequences of Unethical Conduct | |
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| Explanations and Justifications | |
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| What Factors Shape a Negotiator's Predisposition to Use Unethical Tactics? | |
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| Demographic Factors | |
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| Situational Influences on Unethical Conduct | |
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| Personality Differences and Moral Development | |
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| How Can Negotiators Deal with the Other Party's Use of Deception? | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| Negotiation Contexts | |
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| The Social Context of Negotiation | |
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| The Number of Parties in a Negotiation | |
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| Negotiating within a Relationship between the Parties | |
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| The Adequacy of Past Theory and Research for Understanding Negotiation within Relationships | |
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| Forms of Relationships | |
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| Negotiations in Communal Relationships | |
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| Key Elements in Managing Negotiations within Relationships | |
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| Trust | |
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| Emotions | |
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| Justice | |
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| Summary | |
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| The Agency Relationship: The Impact of the Larger Social Context on Negotiator Behavior | |
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| Audiences: Team Members | |
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| Constituents, Bystanders, and Audiences | |
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| Tactical Implications of Social Structure Dynamics: The Negotiator's Dilemma | |
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| Building Relationships with Other Parties: Opponents and Constituents | |
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| Section Summary | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| Multiparty Negotiations: Coalitions and Groups | |
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| Negotiations with More Than Two Negotiators | |
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| Negotiating Coalitions | |
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| Types of Coalitions | |
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| Understanding How and Why Coalitions Form | |
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| Research on Coalitions | |
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| Coalition Inputs. Standards for Coalition Decision Making | |
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| Where Is the Strength in Coalitions? | |
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| Other Types of Coalition Situations | |
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| How Coalitions Form | |
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| Power Revisited: Power in Coalitions | |
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| How to Build Coalitions: Some Practical Advice | |
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| Multiparty Negotiations | |
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| Differences between Two-Party Negotiations and Multiparty Negotiations | |
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| Managing Multiparty Negotiations | |
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| The Prenegotiation Phase | |
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| The Formal Negotiation Stage--Managing the Group Process and Outcome | |
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| The Agreement Phase | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| Individual Differences | |
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| Early Research on Personality and Negotiation | |
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| Differences in Negotiation Style and Approach | |
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| Creating Definitive Research Tests of the Relationship between Personality Predispositions and Negotiation Outcomes | |
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| Efforts to Reconceptualize the Inconclusive Nature of Previous Findings | |
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| Later Research on Personality and Negotiation | |
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| Conflict Management Style | |
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| Machiavellianism. Interpersonal Trust | |
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| Perspective-taking Ability | |
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| Self-Efficacy | |
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| Self-Monitoring | |
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| An Omnibus Approach | |
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| Sex, Gender, and Negotiation: New Approaches | |
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| Theoretical Approaches to Understanding Male and Female Negotiators | |
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| Empirical Approaches to Understanding Male and Female Negotiators | |
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| The Behavioral Approach | |
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| Closing Comments | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| Global Negotiation | |
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| The American Negotiating Style | |
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| Not Everyone Negotiates Like Americans! | |
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| What Makes Cross-Border Negotiations Different? | |
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| Environmental Context | |
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| Immediate Context | |
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| How Do We Explain Global Negotiation Outcomes? | |
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| Hofstede's Dimensions of Culture | |
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| Power Distance | |
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| Individualism/Collectivism | |
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| Masculinity/Femininity | |
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| Uncertainty Avoidance | |
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| Conceptualizing Culture and Negotiation | |
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| Culture as Learned Behavior | |
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| Culture as Shared Values | |
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| Culture as Dialectic | |
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| Culture in Context | |
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| How Do Cultural Differences Influence Negotiations? | |
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| Culturally Responsive Negotiation Strategies | |
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| Low Familiarity | |
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| Moderate Familiarity | |
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| High Familiarity | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| Negotiation Remedies | |
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| Managing Difficult Negotiations: Individual Approaches | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Impasse's Antecedents: Entrenchment and Intractability | |
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| What Causes Contentious Negotiation Behavior? | |
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| Getting Mad, Getting Even | |
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| Social Comparisons and Contrasts | |
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| General Remedies | |
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| Reducing Tension and Synchronizing De-escalation | |
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| Improving the Accuracy of Communication | |
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| Controlling Issues | |
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| Establishing Commonalities | |
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| Making Preferred Options More Desirable to the Other Party | |
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| Section Summary | |
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| Unintended Impasses: Collaborative Shortfalls | |
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| The Remedial Power of Integrative Processes | |
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| Faulty Group Process | |
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| Time Constraints and Deadlines | |
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| Generation of Creative Alternatives | |
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| Mismatched Models: Intentional and Otherwise | |
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| Responding to the Other Side's Dirty Tricks | |
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| Responding When the Other Side Has More Power | |
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| The Special Problem of Handling Ultimatums | |
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| Responding When the Other Side Is Being Difficult | |
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| Coping with Different Negotiators: A Summary | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| Managing Difficult Negotiations: Third-Party Approaches | |
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| Adding Third Parties to the Two-Party Negotiation Process | |
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| Benefits and Liabilities of Third-Party Intervention | |
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| When Is Third-Party Involvement Appropriate? | |
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| Which Type of Intervention Is Appropriate? | |
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| Formal Intervention Methods | |
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| Arbitration | |
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| Mediation | |
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| The Downside of Arbitration and Mediation | |
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| Process Consultation | |
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| Informal Intervention Methods | |
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| Which Approach Is More Effective? | |
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| Dispute Resolution Systems: When the Organization Is the Third Party | |
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| Summary | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Index | |