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Preface | |
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History, Background, and Basic Concepts | |
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Innate Behavior Patterns and Habituation | |
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Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning | |
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Theories and Research on Classical Conditioning | |
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Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning | |
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Reinforcement Schedules: Experimental Analyses and Applications | |
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Avoidance and Punishment | |
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Theories and Research on Operant Conditioning | |
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Stimulus Control and Concept Learning | |
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Comparative Cognition | |
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Learning by Observation | |
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Learning Motor Skills | |
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Choice | |
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Glossary | |
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References | |
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Acknowledgments | |
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Author Index | |
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Subject Index | |
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Preface | |
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History, Background, and Basic Concepts | |
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The Search for General Principles of Learning | |
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The Associationists | |
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Aristotle | |
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The British Associationists: Simple and Complex Ideas | |
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Ebbinghaus's Experiments on Memory | |
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The Effects of Repetition | |
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The Effects of Time | |
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The Role of Contiguity | |
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The Influence of the Associationists and Ebbinghaus | |
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Behavioral and Cognitive Approaches to Learning | |
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The Use of Animal Subjects | |
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The Emphasis on External Events | |
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The Physiological Approach: Brain and Behavior | |
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The Basic Characteristics of Neurons | |
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Physiological Research on Simple Sensations | |
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Physiological Research on Feature Detectors | |
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Physiological Research on Learning | |
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Summary | |
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Review Questions | |
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Innate Behavior Patterns and Habituation | |
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Characteristics of Goal-Directed Systems | |
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Reflexes | |
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Tropisms and Orientation | |
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Kineses | |
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Taxes | |
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Sequences of Behavior | |
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Fixed Action Patterns | |
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Reaction Chains | |
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Innate Human Abilities and Predispositions | |
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Habituation | |
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General Principles of Habituation | |
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Physiological Mechanisms of Habituation | |
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Habituation in Emotional Responses: the Opponent-Process Theory | |
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Summary | |
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Review Questions | |
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Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning | |
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Pavlov's Discovery and Its Impact | |
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The Standard Paradigm of Classical Conditioning | |
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The Variety of Conditioned Responses | |
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Pavlov's Stimulus Substitution Theory | |
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S-S or S-R Connections? | |
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Basic Conditioning Phenomena | |
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Acquisition | |
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Extinction | |
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Spontaneous Recovery, Disinhibition, and Rapid Reacquisition | |
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Conditioned Inhibition | |
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Generalization and Discrimination | |
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The Importance of Timing in Classical Conditioning | |
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CS-US Correlations | |
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Higher Order Conditioning | |
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Classical Conditioning Outside the Laboratory | |
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Classical Conditioning and Emotional Responses | |
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Classical Conditioning and the Immune System | |
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Applications in Behavior Therapy | |
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Summary | |
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Review Questions | |
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Theories and Research on Classical Conditioning | |
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Theories of Associative Learning | |
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The Blocking Effect | |
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The Rescorla-Wagner Model | |
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Other Theories | |
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Summary | |
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Types of Associations | |
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Associations in First-Order Conditioning | |
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Associations in Second-Order Conditioning | |
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Associations with Contextual Stimuli | |
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CS-CS Associations | |
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Occasion Setting | |
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Summary | |
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Biological Constraints on Classical Conditioning | |
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The Contiguity Principle and Taste-Aversion Learning | |
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Biological Preparedness in Taste-Aversion Learning | |
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Biological Preparedness in Human Learning | |
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Biological Constraints and the General-Principle Approach | |
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The Form of the Conditioned Response | |
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Drug Tolerance and Drug Cravings as Conditioned Responses | |
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Conditioned Opponent Theories | |
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Physiological Research on Classical Conditioning | |
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Summary | |
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Review Questions | |
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Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning | |
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The Law of Effect | |
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Thorndike's Experiments | |
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Guthrie and Horton: Evidence for a Mechanical Strengthening Process | |
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Superstitious Behaviors | |
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The Procedure of Shaping, or Successive Approximations | |
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Shaping Lever Pressing in a Rat | |
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Shaping Behaviors in the Classroom | |
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Shaping as a Tool in Behavior Modification | |
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Making Shaping More Precise: Percentile Schedules | |
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Versatility of the Shaping Process | |
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The Research of B. F. Skinner | |
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The Free Operant | |
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The Three-Term Contingency | |
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Basic Principles of Operant Conditioning | |
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Resurgence | |
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Conditioned Reinforcement | |
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Response Chains | |
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Biological Constraints on Operant Conditioning | |
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Instinctive Drift | |
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Autoshaping | |
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Reconciling Reinforcement Theory and Biological Constraints | |
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Summary | |
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Review Questions | |
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Reinforcement Schedules: Experimental Analyses and Applications | |
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Plotting Moment-to-Moment Behavior: the Cumulative Recorder | |
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The Four Simple Reinforcement Schedules | |
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Fixed Ratio | |
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Variable Ratio | |
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Fixed Interval | |
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Variable Interval | |
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Extinction and the Four Simple Schedules | |
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Other Reinforcement Schedules | |
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Factors Affecting Performance on Reinforcement Schedules | |
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Behavioral Momentum | |
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Contingency-Shaped versus Rule-Governed Behaviors | |
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Reinforcement History | |
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Summary | |
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The Experimental Analysis of Reinforcement Schedules | |
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Cause of the FR Postreinforcement Pause | |
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Comparisons of VR and VI Response Rates | |
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Applications of Operant Conditioning | |
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Teaching Language to Children with Autism | |
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Token Reinforcement | |
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Organizational Behavior Management | |
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Behavior Therapy for Marital Problems | |
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Conclusions | |
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Summary | |
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Review Questions | |
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Avoidance and Punishment | |
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Avoidance | |
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A Representative Experiment | |
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Two-Factor Theory | |
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Evidence Supporting Two-Factor Theory | |
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Problems with Two-Factor Theory | |
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One-Factor Theory | |
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Cognitive Theory | |
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Biological Constraints in Avoidance Learning | |
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Conclusions about the Theories of Avoidance | |
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Flooding as Behavior Therapy | |
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Learned Helplessness | |
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Punishment | |
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Is Punishment the Opposite of Reinforcement? | |
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Factors Influencing the Effectiveness of Punishment | |
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Disadvantages of Using Punishment | |
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Negative Punishment | |
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Behavior Decelerators in Behavior Therapy | |
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Positive Punishment | |
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Negative Punishment: Response Cost and Time-Out | |
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Other Techniques for Behavior Deceleration | |
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Summary | |
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Review Questions | |
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Theories and Research on Operant Conditioning | |
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The Role of the Response | |
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The Role of the Reinforcer | |
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Is Reinforcement Necessary for Operant Conditioning? | |
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Expectations about the Reinforcer | |
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Can Reinforcement Control Visceral Responses? | |
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Biofeedback | |
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How Can We Predict What Will Be a Reinforcer? | |
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Need Reduction | |
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Drive Reduction | |
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Trans-situationality | |
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Premack's Principle | |
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Response Deprivation Theory | |
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The Functional Analysis of Behaviors and Reinforcers | |
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Behavioral Economics | |
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Optimization: Theory and Research | |
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Elasticity and Inelasticity of Demand | |
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Behavioral Economics and Drug Abuse | |
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Other Applications | |
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Summary | |
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Review Questions | |
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Stimulus Control and Concept Learning | |
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Generalization Gradients | |
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Measuring Generalization Gradients | |
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What Causes Generalization Gradients? | |
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Is Stimulus Control Absolute or Relational? | |
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Transposition and Peak Shift | |
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Spence's Theory of Excitatory and Inhibitory Gradients | |
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The Intermediate-Size Problem | |
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Other Data, and Some Conclusions | |
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Behavioral Contrast | |
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�Errorless� Discrimination Learning | |
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Transfer of Learning and Learning Sets | |
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Concept Learning | |
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The Structure of Natural Categories | |
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Animal Studies on Natural Concept Learning | |
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Developing Stimulus Equivalence | |
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Stimulus Control in Behavior Modification | |
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Stimulus Equivalence Training | |
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Study Habits and Health Habits | |
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Insomnia | |
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Summary | |
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Review Questions | |
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Comparative Cognition | |
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Memory and Rehearsal | |
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Short-Term Memory, or Working Memory | |
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Rehearsal | |
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Long-Term Memory, Retrieval, and Forgetting | |
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Time, Number, and Serial Patterns | |
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Experiments on an �Internal Clock� | |
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Counting | |
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Serial Pattern Learning | |
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Chunking | |
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Language and Reasoning | |
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Teaching Language to Animals | |
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Reasoning by Animals | |
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Summary | |
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Review Questions | |
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Learning by Observation | |
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Theories of Imitation | |
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Imitation as an Instinct | |
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Imitation as an Operant Response | |
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Imitation as a Generalized Operant Response | |
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Bandura's Theory of Imitation | |
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Which Theory of Imitation Is Best? | |
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Mirror Neurons and Imitation | |
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Interactions Between Observational Learning and Operant Conditioning | |
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Achievement Motivation | |
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Aggression | |
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Effects of the Mass Media | |
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Television Violence and Aggressive Behavior | |
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Video Games and Popular Music | |
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What Can Be Learned Through Observation? | |
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Phobias | |
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Drug Use and Addictions | |
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Cognitive Development | |
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Moral Standards and Behavior | |
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Modeling in Behavior Therapy | |
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Facilitation of Low-Probability Behaviors | |