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Foreword | |
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Preface | |
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Parties and Party Systems | |
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What Are Political Parties? | |
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The Three Parts of Parties | |
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The Party Organization | |
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The Party in Government | |
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The Party in the Electorate | |
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What Parties Do | |
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Electing Candidates | |
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Educating (or Propagandizing) Citizens | |
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Governing | |
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The Effects of Party Activity | |
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How Do Parties Differ from Other Political Groups? | |
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Parties Are Paramount in Elections | |
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They Have a Full-time Commitment to Political Activity | |
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They Mobilize Large Numbers | |
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They Endure | |
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They Serve as Political Symbols | |
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How the American Parties Developed | |
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The Founding of American Parties | |
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A National Two-Party System Emerges | |
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The Golden Age of the Parties | |
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The Progressive Reforms and Beyond | |
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What Do the Parties Stand For? | |
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Parties Are Shaped by Their Environment | |
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Voters and Elections | |
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Political Institutions | |
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Laws Governing Parties | |
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Political Culture | |
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The Broader Environment | |
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The American Two-Party System | |
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The National Party System | |
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The 50 State Party Systems | |
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Measuring State Party Competition | |
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Limits on Competitiveness: Incumbency | |
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And Other Reasons for Declining Competitiveness | |
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What Causes a Two-Party System? | |
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Institutional Forces | |
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"Dualist" Theories | |
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Social Consensus Theories | |
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Party Self-Protection (The Best Defense Is a Good Offense) | |
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Exceptions to the Two-Party Pattern | |
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NonPartisan Elections | |
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Areas of One-Party Monopoly | |
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Third Parties | |
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Differences in Ideology | |
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Difference of Origins | |
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Differing Purposes | |
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What Difference Do They Make? | |
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The Rise of Independent Candidates | |
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Will the Two-Party System Continue? | |
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The Political Party as an Organization | |
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The State and Local Party Organizations | |
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What Is a "Strong" Party? | |
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State Regulation of the Parties | |
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Levels of Party Organization | |
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Local Party Committees | |
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State Central Committees | |
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The Legendary Party Machines | |
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How the Party Machines Developed | |
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How Machines Held on to Power | |
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Local Party Organizations Declined and Then Rebuilt | |
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Local Parties in the 1970s | |
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Local Parties Today: Richer and More Active | |
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The State Parties: Gaining Money and Services | |
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Traditional Weakness | |
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Increasing Strength in Recent Years | |
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Fund-raising | |
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Campaign Services | |
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Republican Advantage | |
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Allied Groups | |
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The Special Case of the South | |
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National Party Money | |
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Summing Up: How the State and Local Party Organizations Have Transformed | |
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The Parties' National Organizations | |
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The National Parties | |
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The National Committees | |
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National Party Chairs | |
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Presidents and Their National Parties | |
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Other National Party Groups | |
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Congressional Campaign ("Hill") Committees | |
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Women's and Youth Groups | |
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Democratic and Republican Governors' Associations | |
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Two Paths to Power | |
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The Service Party Path | |
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The Democrats' Procedural-Reform Path | |
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Both Parties Take the Service Path | |
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Rising to the Challenge of New Campaign Finance Rules | |
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Party Money and Activism in the 2008 Elections | |
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What Is the Impact of These Stronger National Parties? | |
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Effects on Candidates' Campaigns | |
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Effects on State and Local Parties | |
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The Dean 50-State Strategy | |
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Effects on the Presidency | |
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Effects on Congress | |
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Relationships within the National Party | |
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The Limits of Party Organization | |
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Party Activists | |
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What Draws People into Party Activity? | |
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Material Incentives | |
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Patronage | |
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Elected Office | |
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Preferments | |
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Solidary (Social) Incentives | |
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Purposive (Issue-Based) Incentives | |
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Mixed Incentives | |
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Professional and Amateurs | |
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How Do Parties Recruit Activists? | |
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Finding Volunteers: Is Anybody Home? | |
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Means, Motive, and Opportunity | |
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What Kinds of People Become Party Activists | |
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People from "Political Families" | |
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Better Educated and Wealthier Than Average | |
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Different Agendas | |
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More Extreme Views | |
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Party Activists and Democracy | |
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The Problem of Representation | |
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Amateurs and Pressure for Internal Party Democracy | |
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Activists, Party Strength, and Democracy | |
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The Political Party in the Electorate | |
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Party Identification | |
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How People Develop Party Identifications | |
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Childhood Influences | |
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Influences in Adulthood | |
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Patterns of Partisanship over Time | |
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Has There Been a Decline in Partisanship? | |
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The Recent Rise in Democratic Party ID | |
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Party Identification and Political Views | |
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Party Identification and Voting | |
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Party Voting | |
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Party Versus Candidates and Issues | |
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Partisanship as a Two-Way Street | |
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Party Identification and Political Activity | |
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Party Identification and Attitudes toward the Parties | |
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The Myth of the Independent | |
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Attitudinal Independents | |
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Behavioral Independents | |
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Are Independents a Likely Source of Support for Third-Party Candidates? | |
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Change in the Impact of Party ID | |
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A More Candidate-Centered Politics | |
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The Continuing Significance of Party | |
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Party Coalitions and Party Change | |
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The American Party Systems | |
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The First Party System | |
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The Second Party System | |
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The Third Party System | |
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The Fourth Party System | |
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The Fifth Party System | |
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The Social Bases of Party Coalitions | |
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Socioeconomic Status Divisions | |
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Sectional (Regional) Divisions | |
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Age | |
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Religion and Religiosity | |
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Race | |
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Ethnicity | |
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Gender | |
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The Central Role of Issues in the Group-Party Linkage | |
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Polarization of the Polarization of the Two Parties' Coalitions on Issues | |
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The Development of the Sixth Party System | |
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Major Changes in the Parties' Supporting Coalitions | |
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From Democratic Majority to Close Competition | |
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How Can We Characterize These Changes: Realignment, Dealignment, or What? | |
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Problems with the Idea of Realignment | |
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Parties and Voter Turnout | |
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Elections: the Rules Affect the Results | |
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Expansion of the Right to Vote | |
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Rules Affecting Access to Voting Rights | |
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The Secret Ballot | |
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Citizenship | |
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Residence | |
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Residence Registration | |
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The Special Case of Voting Rights for Black Americans | |
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The Long Struggle for Voting Rights | |
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From Voting Rights to Representation | |
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Getting Blacks' Votes Counted | |
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Efforts to Liberalize Voting Rules | |
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Election Day Registration | |
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"Motor Voter" Laws | |
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Early and No-Excuse Absentee Voting | |
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The Voter ID Controversy | |
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Voter ID Laws | |
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Proof of Citizenship | |
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Voting Systems: Are Votes Counted Fairly? | |
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The Low Turnout in American Elections | |
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Why Don't More Americans Vote? | |
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Individual Differences in Turnout | |
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Education | |
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Youth | |
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Gender and Race | |
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Social Connectedness | |
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Political Attitudes | |
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The Impact of the Current Campaign | |
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The Excitement of the Election | |
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Close Competition | |
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Party Efforts to Mobilize Voters | |
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Do Party Efforts Diversify the Electorate? | |
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The Challenge to the Parties | |
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Parties, Nominations, and Elections | |
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How Parties Choose Candidates | |
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How the Nomination Process Evolved | |
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Nominations by Caucus | |
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Nominations by Convention | |
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Nominations by Direct Primaries | |
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The Current Mix of Primaries and Conventions | |
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Types of Primaries | |
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Closed Primaries | |
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Open Primaries | |
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Blanket Primaries | |
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Why Does the Type of Primary Matter? | |
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How Candidates Qualify | |
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How Do Candidates Get on the Ballot? | |
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Runoffs: When Too Many Candidates Get on the Ballot | |
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What Parties Don't Like About Primaries | |
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Difficulties in Recruiting Candidates | |
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The Risk of Unattractive Nominees | |
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Divisive Primaries | |
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Problems in Holding Candidates Accountable | |
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The Party Organization Fights Back | |
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Persuading Candidates to Run (or Not to Run) | |
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Endorsing Candidates | |
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Providing Tangible Support | |
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Candidates and Voters in the Primaries | |
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Many Candidates Run Without Competition | |
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And Voters Are in Short Supply | |
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The Impact of the Direct Primary | |
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Has It Made Elections More Democratic? | |
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How Badly Has It Harmed the Parties? | |
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Is the Primary Worth the Cost? | |
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Choosing the Presidential Nominees | |
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The Move to Presidential Primaries | |
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Turbulence in the Democratic Party | |
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Presidential Primaries and Caucuses Today | |
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The Race to Win Delegate Votes | |
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The "Invisible Primary" | |
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Candidates' Strategic Choices | |
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Win Early or Die | |
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Comparing the Clinton and Obama Strategies | |
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What Is the Party's Role? | |
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Voters' Choices in Presidential Nominations | |
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Who Votes? | |
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Are Primary Voters Typical? | |
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Do Voters Make Informed Choices? | |
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Do Primaries Produce Good Candidates? | |
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On to the National Conventions | |
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Roots of the Conventions | |
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What Conventions Do | |
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Approving the Platform | |
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Formalizing the Presidential Nomination | |
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Approving the Vice-Presidential Nominee | |
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Launching the Presidential Campaign | |
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Who Are the Delegates? | |
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Apportioning Delegates among the States | |
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How Representative Are the Delegates? | |
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Demographics | |
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Political Experience | |
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Issues | |
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Amateurs or Professionals? | |
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Who Controls the Delegates? | |
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How Media Cover Conventions | |
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Do Conventions Still Have a Purpose? | |
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Should We Reform the Reforms? | |
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What Could Be Done? | |
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The General Election | |
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Campaign Strategy | |
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How Campaigning Has Changed | |
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Professional Consultants | |
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Sources of Information | |
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Computers | |
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Polls | |
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Methods of Persuasion: the Air War | |
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Television | |
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The Internet | |
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Social Networking Sites | |
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E-mail | |
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The Ground War: "Under the Radar" | |
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Direct Contact by Mail, Text, and Twitter | |
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Direct Mail | |
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Text Messaging | |
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Twitter | |
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Canvassing and Phone Banks | |
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MicrotMicrotargeting | |
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Negative Campaigning | |
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The 2004 Campaign | |
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Democrats Regain the Advantage in 2006 | |
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The Old and the New in 2008 | |
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Do Campaigns Make a Difference? | |
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The Argument That Campaigns Matter | |
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The Argument That They Don't | |
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Some Tentative Answers | |
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Candidate-Centered or Party-Centered Campaigns? | |
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Party Influence in Competitive Campaigns | |
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The Continuing Struggle between Candidates and Party Organizations | |
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Financing the Campaigns | |
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How Much Money Is Spent on Campaigns? | |
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Presidential Campaigns | |
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Congressional Campaigns | |
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State and Local Campaigns | |
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What Is the Impact of Campaign Spending? | |
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Where Does the Money Come From? | |
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Individual Contributors | |
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Political Action Committees | |
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Parties | |
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The Candidates Themselves | |
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Public Funding | |
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Money in State and Local Campaigns | |
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Reform of the Campaign Finance Rules | |
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Contribution Limits | |
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Public Disclosure | |
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Public Funding of Presidential Campaigns | |
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Spending Limits | |
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The Loopholes That Ate the Reforms | |
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Independent Spending | |
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Soft Money | |
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Issue Advocacy Ads | |
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527 and 501(c) Advocacy Groups | |
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What Did the 1970s Reforms Accomplish? | |
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Intended and Unintended Effects | |
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Effects on the Parties | |
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Another Try: the BiPartisan Campaign Reform Act (BCRA) | |
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Big and Small Contributions in 2004 and 2008 | |
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The Parties Survived BCRA | |
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State Regulation and Financing | |
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Money in American Politics | |
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The Party in Government | |
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Parties in Congress and State Legislatures | |
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How the Parties Are Organized in Congress | |
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Changes in the Power of House Party Leaders | |
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The Revolt Against "Czar" Cannon | |
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Growing Party Coordination | |
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The Gingrich Revolution and the Change to Democratic Control | |
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What Caused This Stronger Party Leadership? | |
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Parties in the "Individualist Senate" | |
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Parties in the State Legislatures | |
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Methods of Party Influence | |
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Carrots and Sticks | |
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Agenda Control | |
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Party Influence on Legislative Voting | |
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How Unified Is Each Legislative Party? | |
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Party Votes | |
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Party Support | |
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Greater Polarization of the Congressional Parties | |
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When Are the Parties Most Unified? | |
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Issues That Touch the Interests of the Legislative Parties | |
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The Executive's Proposals | |
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Policies Central to the Party System | |
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Comparing Party Power in Congress and State Legislatures | |
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Party Polarization and Cohesion | |
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Greater InterParty Competition | |
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No Competing Centers of Power | |
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Other Needed Resources | |
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Lesser Legislative Professionalism | |
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Styles of Individual Leaders | |
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The Power of Legislative Parties | |
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The Party in the Executive and the Courts | |
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Presidents and Governors as Party Leaders | |
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The President as Campaigner-in-Chief | |
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The President as the "Top of the Ticket" | |
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Coattail Effects | |
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Coattails Even without the Coat | |
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Party Leadership and Legislative Relations | |
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Legislative Support for Executives | |
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Divided Control of Government | |
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Party Influence in Executive Agencies | |
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Limits on Presidential Influence: Bureaucrats Have Constituents Too | |
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Party Experience Among Bureaucrats | |
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Changing Political Outlooks in the Federal Bureaucracy | |
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Traces of Party in the Courts | |
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Judicial Voting Along Party Lines | |
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What Causes Partisan Behavior on the Courts? | |
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Party and Judicial Appointments | |
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Federal Judges | |
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State Court Judges | |
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The Party within the Executive and the Judge | |
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The Semi-Responsible Parties | |
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The Case for Responsible Party Government | |
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How Would Party Government (Responsible Parties) Work? | |
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The Case Against Party Government | |
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It Would Increase Conflict | |
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It Wouldn't Work in American Politics | |
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The Gingrich Experiment: A Temporarily Responsible Party | |
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Party Cohesion and Ideology | |
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Are the American Parties Ideological? | |
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Do They at Least Offer Clear Choices? | |
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But Internal Divisions Remain | |
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Ideology and the American Voter | |
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How Ideological Is the American Public? | |
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Differences among Voters, Activists, and Candidates | |
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When Is Party Government Most Likely? | |
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When There Is Strong Presidential Leadership | |
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In Times of Crisis | |
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When the Parties' Supporting Coalitions Realign | |
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Party Government and Popular Control | |
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The Place of Parties in American Politics | |
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Parties and Their Environment | |
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The Nature of the Electorate | |
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Political Institutions and Rules | |
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Societal Forces | |
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Party Decline in the 1960s and 1970s | |
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The Parties in the Electorate | |
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Party Organizations | |
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The Party in Government | |
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Shifting Power Centers within the Parties | |
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Party Renewal | |
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Change in the Parties' Electoral Coalitions | |
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A Return to Democratic Party Dominance? | |
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The Rise of More Cohesive Parties in Government | |
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The New "Service" Parties | |
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The Future of Party Politics in America | |
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A Changing Intermediary Role | |
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The Need for Strong Parties | |
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How to Make the Parties Stronger | |
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Conclusion: the Parties' Prospects | |
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Party Politics on the Internet | |
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Appendix | |
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Endnotes | |
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Index | |