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| Preface | |
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| The Role of Assessment in Teaching | |
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| Integrating Instruction and Assessment | |
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| The Realities of Teaching | |
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| Instructional Decision Making and Assessment | |
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| What Is Classroom Assessment? | |
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| Purpose | |
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| Measurement | |
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| Evaluation | |
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| Use | |
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| Research on Learning, Motivation, Instruction, and Curriculum: Implications for Assessment | |
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| Recent Trends in Classroom Assessment | |
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| The Influence of Large-Scale Accountability Testing | |
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| Teachers' Classroom Assessment and Grading Practices Decision Making | |
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| Assessment Standards for Teachers | |
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| Summary | |
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| What's Coming | |
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| Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Suggestions for Action Research | |
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| Learning Targets and Standards | |
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| What Are Learning Targets? | |
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| Educational Goals | |
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| Objectives | |
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| Standards-Based Education | |
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| Criteria | |
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| Expectations | |
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| Learning Targets | |
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| Types of Learning Targets | |
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| Knowledge and Simple Understanding Learning Targets | |
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| Deep Understanding and Reasoning Learning Targets | |
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| Skill Learning Targets | |
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| Product Learning Targets | |
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| Affective Learning Targets | |
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| Sources of Learning Targets and Standards | |
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| Bloom's Taxonomy of Objectives | |
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| Bloom's Revised Taxonomy of Objectives | |
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| Professional Preparation | |
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| Textbooks | |
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| Existing Lists of Objectives | |
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| National and State Standards | |
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| Criteria for Selecting Learning Targets and Standards | |
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| Summary | |
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| Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Suggestions for Action Research | |
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| High-Quality Classroom Assessment | |
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| What Is High-Quality Classroom Assessment? | |
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| Clear and Appropriate Learning Targets | |
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| Appropriateness of Assessment Methods | |
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| Types of Assessment Methods | |
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| Matching Targets with Methods | |
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| Validity | |
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| What Is a Valid Assessment? | |
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| How Is Validity Determined? | |
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| Reliability | |
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| What Is a Reliable Score? | |
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| Assessment Error | |
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| How Is Reliability Determined? | |
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| Sources of Reliability Evidence | |
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| Factors Influencing Reliability Estimates | |
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| Fairness | |
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| Student Knowledge of Learning Targets and Assessments | |
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| Opportunity to Learn | |
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| Prerequisite Knowledge and Skills | |
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| Avoiding Student Stereotyping | |
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| Avoiding Bias in Assessment Tasks and Procedures | |
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| Accommodating Special Needs | |
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| Positive Consequences | |
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| Positive Consequences for Students | |
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| Positive Consequences for Teachers | |
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| Alignment | |
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| Practicality and Efficiency | |
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| Teacher Familiarity with the Method | |
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| Time Required | |
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| Complexity of Administration | |
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| Ease of Scoring | |
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| Ease of Interpretation | |
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| Cost | |
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| Summary | |
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| Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Suggestions for Action Research | |
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| Assessment before Instruction: Learning about Your Students | |
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| Before School Begins: What Do You Know about Your Students? | |
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| School Records | |
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| Norm-Referenced Standardized Test Scores | |
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| Standards-Based State and District Test Scores | |
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| Information Cards | |
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| After the First Week: Now What Do You Know about Your Students? | |
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| Informal Observation | |
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| Structured Exercises | |
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| Pretests | |
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| Teacher Expectations | |
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| High-Quality Preinstructional Assessment | |
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| Clear and Appropriate Learning Targets | |
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| Appropriateness of Assessment Methods | |
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| Validity | |
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| Reliability | |
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| Fairness | |
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| Positive Consequences | |
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| Alignment | |
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| Practicality and Efficiency | |
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| Summary | |
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| Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Suggestions for Action Research | |
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| Formative Assessment: Assessing and Promoting Student Progress during Instruction | |
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| Formative Assessment | |
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| Informal Observation | |
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| Assessing Nonverbal Behavior | |
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| Assessing Voice-Related Cues | |
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| Sources of Error in Informal Observation | |
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| Using Oral Questioning to Assess Student Progress | |
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| Purposes of Questioning | |
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| Characteristics of Effective Questioning to Assess Student Progress | |
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| Using Homework, In-Class Assignments, and Quizzes | |
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| Homework | |
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| In-Class Assignments | |
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| Quizzes | |
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| Providing Feedback and Praise | |
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| Characteristics of Effective Feedback | |
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| Characteristics of Effective Praise | |
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| Student Self-Assessment | |
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| Summary | |
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| Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Suggestions for Action Research | |
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| Objectively Scored Assessments of Knowledge and Simple Understanding: Completion, Short-Answer, and Selected-Response Items | |
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| Preparing for Summative Assessment | |
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| Representative Sampling | |
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| Number and Length of Assessments | |
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| Use of Assessments Provided by Textbook and Test Publishers | |
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| Preparing Students for Summative Assessments | |
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| Scheduling the Summative Assessment | |
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| When Summative Assessments Should Be Constructed | |
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| Types of Knowledge and Simple Understanding Targets | |
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| Knowledge Representation | |
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| Declarative Knowledge and Understanding | |
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| Procedural Knowledge and Understanding | |
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| Assessing Knowledge | |
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| Completion and Short-Answer Items | |
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| Matching Items | |
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| True/False and Other Binary-Choice Items | |
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| Multiple-Choice Items | |
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| Assessing Simple Understanding: Comprehension and Application | |
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| Assessing Comprehension | |
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| Assessing Application | |
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| Putting Tests Together | |
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| Preparing Test Directions | |
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| Arranging Items | |
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| Physical Layout of the Test | |
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| Administering Classroom Assessments | |
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| Summary | |
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| Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Suggestions for Action Research | |
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| Selected-Response, Short-Answer, and Essay Items: Assessing Deep Understanding and Reasoning | |
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| What Is Deep Understanding? | |
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| What Are Reasoning Skills? | |
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| Bloom's Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain | |
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| Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy | |
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| Ennis's Taxonomy of Critical Thinking Dispositions and Abilities | |
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| Quellmalz and Hoskyn's Framework for Reasoning Strategies | |
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| Assessing Deep Understanding and Reasoning | |
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| Short-Answer and Selected-Response Items | |
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| Essay Items | |
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| Summary | |
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| Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Suggestions for Action Research | |
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| Performance Assessments: Assessing Deep Understanding, Reasoning, and Skills | |
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| What Is Performance Assessment? | |
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| Strengths and Limitations of Performance Assessments | |
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| Learning Targets for Performance Assessments | |
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| Deep Understanding | |
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| Reasoning | |
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| Skills | |
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| Products | |
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| Constructing Performance Tasks | |
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| Restricted- and Extended-Type Performance Tasks | |
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| Performance Task Descriptions and Contexts | |
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| Performance Task Question or Prompt | |
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| Criteria and Rubrics | |
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| Performance Criteria | |
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| Rating Scales | |
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| Rubrics | |
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| Summary | |
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| Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Suggestions for Action Research | |
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| Portfolios: Assessing Understanding, Reasoning, Skills, and Products | |
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| What Are Portfolios? | |
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| Advantages | |
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| Disadvantages | |
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| Planning for Portfolio Assessment | |
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| Purpose | |
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| Identify Physical Structure | |
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| Determine Sources of Content | |
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| Determine Student Self-Reflective Guidelines and Scoring Criteria | |
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| Implementing Portfolio Assessment | |
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| Review with Students | |
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| Supplying Portfolio Content | |
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| Student Self-Evaluations | |
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| Teacher Evaluation | |
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| Student-Teacher Conferences | |
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| Summary | |
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| Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Suggestions for Action Research | |
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| Assessing Affective Traits and Dispositions | |
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| Are Affective Targets Important? | |
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| What Are Affective Traits and Learning Targets? | |
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| Attitude Targets | |
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| Value Targets | |
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| Motivation Targets | |
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| Academic Self-Concept Targets | |
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| Social Relationship Targets | |
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| Classroom Environment Targets | |
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| Affective Domain of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives | |
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| Methods of Assessing Affective Targets | |
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| Teacher Observation | |
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| Student Self-Report | |
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| Peer Ratings | |
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| Which Method or Combination of Methods Should I Use? | |
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| Ensuring Anonymity | |
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| Summary | |
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| Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Suggestions for Action Research | |
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| Assessing Students with Special Needs in Inclusive Settings | |
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| Legal Mandates | |
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| Assessing Students for Identification | |
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| Steps before Identification | |
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| Identification | |
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| Limited-English-Proficient Students | |
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| Assessment Problems Encountered by Students with Special Needs | |
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| Comprehension Difficulties | |
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| Auditory Difficulties | |
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| Visual Difficulties | |
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| Time Constraint Difficulties | |
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| Anxiety | |
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| Embarrassment | |
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| Variability of Behavior | |
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| Assessment Accommodations | |
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| Adaptations in Test Directions, Construction, and Format | |
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| Adaptations in Test Administration | |
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| Adaptations in Testing Site | |
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| Grading and Reporting Accommodations | |
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| Grading Accommodations | |
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| Reporting Accommodations | |
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| Summary | |
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| Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Suggestions for Action Research | |
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| Grading and Reporting Student Performance | |
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| Teachers' Judgments in Grading | |
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| Functions of Marking and Grading | |
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| Providing Feedback | |
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| Incorporating Factors Other Than Performance | |
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| Basis of Comparison | |
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| Motivation | |
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| Approaches to Marking and Grading | |
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| Letter Grades | |
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| Percentage Correct | |
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| Pass-Fail | |
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| Checklists | |
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| Standards-Based | |
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| Written Descriptions | |
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| Determining Report Card (Composite) Grades | |
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| Select What to Include in the Final Grade | |
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| Select Weights for Each Assessment | |
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| Combining Different Scores and Grades | |
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| Borderline Grades | |
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| Suggestions for Fair Grading | |
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| Reporting Student Progress to Parents | |
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| Report Cards | |
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| Written Information | |
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| Parent-Teacher Conferences | |
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| Student-Led Conferences | |
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| Summary | |
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| Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Suggestions for Action Research | |
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| Administering and Interpreting Standardized and State Standards-Based Tests | |
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| Fundamental Descriptive Statistics | |
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| Frequency Distributions | |
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| Measures of Central Tendency | |
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| Measures of Variability | |
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| Measures of Relationship | |
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| Types of Derived Standardized Test Scores | |
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| Standard Scores | |
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| Grade Equivalent Scores | |
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| Interpreting Standardized and State Standards-Based Tests | |
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| Standard Error of Measurement | |
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| Alignment | |
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| Interpretation of Norm-Referenced Standardized Tests | |
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| Criterion-Referenced/Standards-Based Interpretations | |
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| Understanding Standardized Test Score Reports | |
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| Interpreting Test Reports for Parents | |
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| Preparing Students to Take Standardized Tests | |
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| Administering Standardized Tests | |
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| Summary | |
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| Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Answers to Self-Instructional Review Exercises | |
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| Suggestions for Action Research | |
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| The Scope of a Teacher's Professional Role and Responsibilities for Student Assessment | |
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| The Student Evaluation Standards | |
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| Glossary | |
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| References | |
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| Index | |