| |
| |
| Feature Boxes | |
| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| Author Biography | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Study of Crime | |
| |
| |
| The Nature of Crime and Delinquency | |
| |
| |
| The Characteristics of Crime | |
| |
| |
| Juvenile Delinquency | |
| |
| |
| Social Origins of the Criminal Law | |
| |
| |
| Theoretical Perspectives on Crime and the Criminal Law | |
| |
| |
| The Social Construction of Crime | |
| |
| |
| Strategies of Criminological Research | |
| |
| |
| Comparative and Historical Research | |
| |
| |
| Biographies | |
| |
| |
| Patterns of Crime | |
| |
| |
| The Cohort Study | |
| |
| |
| Surveys | |
| |
| |
| Other Strategies of Criminological Research | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |
| |
| |
| For Further Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measuring Crime | |
| |
| |
| The Emergence of Modern Criminology | |
| |
| |
| Classical Criminology | |
| |
| |
| Cartography | |
| |
| |
| Positivism | |
| |
| |
| Official Crime Statistics | |
| |
| |
| History of Crime Statistics in the United States | |
| |
| |
| FBI Crime Statistics | |
| |
| |
| Crime Rates | |
| |
| |
| Gathering Crime Statistics | |
| |
| |
| Using FBI Data for Criminological Research | |
| |
| |
| Measuring Criminal Victimization | |
| |
| |
| History of Victimization Surveys | |
| |
| |
| Comparing NCVS and FBI Data | |
| |
| |
| The Dark Figure | |
| |
| |
| Methodological Problems with Victimization Surveys | |
| |
| |
| Measuring Crime by Self-Reports | |
| |
| |
| History of Self-Report Studies | |
| |
| |
| The Dark Figure | |
| |
| |
| Methodological Problems with Self-Report Studies | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |
| |
| |
| For Further Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| Crime and Its Costs | |
| |
| |
| Conventional Crimes | |
| |
| |
| Crimes of Violence | |
| |
| |
| Property Crimes | |
| |
| |
| White-Collar Crime | |
| |
| |
| Is White-Collar Crime Different? | |
| |
| |
| The Costs of White-Collar Crime | |
| |
| |
| Organized Crime | |
| |
| |
| The Costs of Organized Crime | |
| |
| |
| Victimless Crimes | |
| |
| |
| Drug Use | |
| |
| |
| Gambling | |
| |
| |
| Prostitution | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |
| |
| |
| For Further Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dimensions of Crime | |
| |
| |
| Cross-National Variations in Crime Rates | |
| |
| |
| Regional Variations in Crime Rates within the United States | |
| |
| |
| Variations in Crime Rates by Community | |
| |
| |
| Crime within Metropolitan Areas | |
| |
| |
| Migration and Crime | |
| |
| |
| Temporal Variations in Crime Rates | |
| |
| |
| Seasonal Variations in Crime Rates | |
| |
| |
| Annual Trends in Crime Rates | |
| |
| |
| Variations in Crime Rates by Sex | |
| |
| |
| Sex and Juvenile Delinquency | |
| |
| |
| Sex and Crime | |
| |
| |
| Sex and Victimization | |
| |
| |
| Variations in Crime Rates by Age | |
| |
| |
| Age-Specific Arrest Rates | |
| |
| |
| Age Distribution and Crime Rates | |
| |
| |
| Age and Victimization | |
| |
| |
| Variations in Crime Rates by Race | |
| |
| |
| Race, Arrest Statistics, and Self-Report Studies | |
| |
| |
| Race, Crime, and Background Variables | |
| |
| |
| Race and Victimization | |
| |
| |
| Variations in Crime Rates by Social Class | |
| |
| |
| Social Class and Adult Crime | |
| |
| |
| Social Class and Juvenile Delinquency | |
| |
| |
| Methodological Problems | |
| |
| |
| Social Class and Victimization | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |
| |
| |
| For Further Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| Biological and Psychological Explanations of Crime | |
| |
| |
| Biological Explanations of Crime | |
| |
| |
| History of the Biological Perspective on Crime | |
| |
| |
| Modern Biological Research on Crime | |
| |
| |
| Biology and Modern Criminology | |
| |
| |
| Psychological Explanations of Crime | |
| |
| |
| Intelligence and Crime | |
| |
| |
| Personality Characteristics | |
| |
| |
| Schizophrenia and Mood Disorders | |
| |
| |
| Psychology and Variations in Crime Rates | |
| |
| |
| Psychology and the Criminal Law | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |
| |
| |
| For Further Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| Social, Cultural, and Economic Sources of Crime | |
| |
| |
| Social, Cultural, and Economic Sources of White-Collar Crime | |
| |
| |
| Free Enterprise: Profits and Competition | |
| |
| |
| Market Structure and Crime | |
| |
| |
| Trust and Credit | |
| |
| |
| Corporations and Crime | |
| |
| |
| Development of New Technology | |
| |
| |
| Social, Cultural, and Economic Sources of Organized Crime | |
| |
| |
| Prohibition and Organized Crime | |
| |
| |
| Organized Crime after Prohibition | |
| |
| |
| Organized Crime and the Economic System | |
| |
| |
| Social, Cultural, and Economic Sources of Conventional Crime | |
| |
| |
| Modernization and Crime | |
| |
| |
| Opportunity and the Economy | |
| |
| |
| Unemployment and Crime | |
| |
| |
| Relative Deprivation and Crime | |
| |
| |
| Anomie, Strain, and Crime | |
| |
| |
| Differential Opportunity and Delinquency | |
| |
| |
| Social Class, Values, and Delinquency | |
| |
| |
| The Subculture of Violence | |
| |
| |
| Gender, Crime, and Feminist Criminology | |
| |
| |
| The Generalizability Problem | |
| |
| |
| The Gender Ratio Problem | |
| |
| |
| Gender Socialization | |
| |
| |
| Doing Gender | |
| |
| |
| Power-Control Theory | |
| |
| |
| Women as Victims, Women as Resisters | |
| |
| |
| Social, Cultural, and Economic Factors and Variations in Crime Rates | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |
| |
| |
| For Further Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| Social Control and Commitment to the Law | |
| |
| |
| Neutralizing the Law | |
| |
| |
| Drift | |
| |
| |
| Delinquent, Dominant, and Subterranean Values | |
| |
| |
| Techniques of Neutralization | |
| |
| |
| Evidence on Techniques of Neutralization | |
| |
| |
| Critique of Neutralization Theory | |
| |
| |
| Social Control Theory | |
| |
| |
| The Family | |
| |
| |
| The School | |
| |
| |
| The Peer Group | |
| |
| |
| Conventional Lines of Action and Adult Activities | |
| |
| |
| Evidence on Social Control Theory | |
| |
| |
| Critique of Social Control Theory | |
| |
| |
| Techniques of Neutralization, Social Control Theory, and Variations in Crime Rates | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |
| |
| |
| For Further Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| Learning to Commit Crime | |
| |
| |
| Sources of Learning to Commit Crime | |
| |
| |
| The Community | |
| |
| |
| The Peer Group | |
| |
| |
| The General Culture | |
| |
| |
| The Media | |
| |
| |
| Sports | |
| |
| |
| Pornography | |
| |
| |
| Correctional Institutions | |
| |
| |
| Differential Association Theory | |
| |
| |
| Critique of Differential Association Theory | |
| |
| |
| Evidence on Differential Association Theory | |
| |
| |
| The Labeling Perspective | |
| |
| |
| Labeling and Self-Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Labeling and Opportunities | |
| |
| |
| Labeling and Subcultures | |
| |
| |
| Critique of the Labeling Perspective | |
| |
| |
| Rewards and Risks of Crime | |
| |
| |
| Reward-Risk Models of Criminal Behavior | |
| |
| |
| The Rewards and Risks of Crime | |
| |
| |
| Critique of Reward-Risk Models | |
| |
| |
| Learning Theories and Variations in Crime Rates | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |
| |
| |
| For Further Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| Opportunities and Facilitating Factors | |
| |
| |
| Routine Activities Theory | |
| |
| |
| A Critique of Routine Activities Theory | |
| |
| |
| Targets of Crime | |
| |
| |
| Property Crimes | |
| |
| |
| Vulnerability of Victims | |
| |
| |
| Victim Precipitation | |
| |
| |
| Facilitating Factors: Alcohol, Drugs, and Firearms | |
| |
| |
| Alcohol and Crime | |
| |
| |
| Drugs and Crime | |
| |
| |
| Firearms and Crime | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |
| |
| |
| For Further Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| Criminal Careers | |
| |
| |
| Theoretical Perspectives on Criminal Careers | |
| |
| |
| Analyzing Criminal Careers | |
| |
| |
| Career Contingencies | |
| |
| |
| The Labeling Perspective | |
| |
| |
| The "Zigzag Path": Criminal Careers and Legitimate Pursuits | |
| |
| |
| Recruitment into a Criminal Career | |
| |
| |
| Typologies of Criminal Careers | |
| |
| |
| Delinquent Careers | |
| |
| |
| Chronic Offenders | |
| |
| |
| Patterns of Delinquent Careers | |
| |
| |
| Juvenile Delinquency and Adult Criminal Careers | |
| |
| |
| Criminal Careers of Robbers | |
| |
| |
| Career Patterns | |
| |
| |
| Planning Crimes | |
| |
| |
| Use of the Stolen Money | |
| |
| |
| Intensive and Intermittent Career Criminals | |
| |
| |
| Criminal Careers of White-Collar Offenders | |
| |
| |
| Leaving a Life of Crime | |
| |
| |
| A Model of the Exiting Process | |
| |
| |
| Reasons for Leaving a Career as a Professional Thief | |
| |
| |
| Reasons for Leaving a Career in Violent Crime | |
| |
| |
| Reasons for Leaving a Career as a Drug Dealer or Smuggler | |
| |
| |
| Exiting and Theories of Crime Causation | |
| |
| |
| Exiting and the Correctional System | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |
| |
| |
| For Further Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Organization of Criminal Behavior | |
| |
| |
| The Meaning of Organization | |
| |
| |
| Juvenile Gangs | |
| |
| |
| The Unorganized Gang | |
| |
| |
| The Organized Gang | |
| |
| |
| Conventional Crime | |
| |
| |
| Professional Theft | |
| |
| |
| Drug Smuggling and Dealing | |
| |
| |
| Violent Crime | |
| |
| |
| Organized Crime | |
| |
| |
| The Mafia in the United States | |
| |
| |
| New Forms of Organized Crime | |
| |
| |
| White-Collar Crime | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |
| |
| |
| For Further Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| Community Reactions to Crime | |
| |
| |
| Fear of Crime | |
| |
| |
| Consequences of the Fear of Crime | |
| |
| |
| Informal Control of Crime | |
| |
| |
| Community and Informal Social Control | |
| |
| |
| Defensible Space and Informal Social Control | |
| |
| |
| Individual Response to Crime | |
| |
| |
| Bystander Responses to Crime | |
| |
| |
| Collective Response to Crime | |
| |
| |
| A Historical and Comparative Perspective | |
| |
| |
| Urban Patrol Groups | |
| |
| |
| Neighborhood Watches | |
| |
| |
| Community Crime-Prevention Strategies | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |
| |
| |
| For Further Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Criminal Justice System | |
| |
| |
| The Police | |
| |
| |
| History of the Police | |
| |
| |
| Police Abuses of Authority | |
| |
| |
| The Clearance Rate | |
| |
| |
| Criminal Courts | |
| |
| |
| The Bail System | |
| |
| |
| Preventive Detention | |
| |
| |
| Prosecutors | |
| |
| |
| Defense Attorneys | |
| |
| |
| Judges | |
| |
| |
| Juries | |
| |
| |
| Plea Bargaining | |
| |
| |
| Probation | |
| |
| |
| Sentence Disparity | |
| |
| |
| The Prisons | |
| |
| |
| History of Prisons | |
| |
| |
| The Prison Population | |
| |
| |
| Parole | |
| |
| |
| The Victim in the Criminal Justice System | |
| |
| |
| Compensation | |
| |
| |
| Restitution | |
| |
| |
| The Changing Role of the Victim | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |
| |
| |
| For Further Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| Deterrence, Incapacitation, Retribution, and Rehabilitation | |
| |
| |
| Deterrence | |
| |
| |
| Assumptions about Behavior | |
| |
| |
| Deterrence and Other Effects of Penalties | |
| |
| |
| Deterrence and the Criminal Act | |
| |
| |
| Deterrence and the Sanctioning Process | |
| |
| |
| Deterrence and the Criminal Justice System | |
| |
| |
| Incapacitation | |
| |
| |
| Selective Incapacitation | |
| |
| |
| Career Criminal Programs | |
| |
| |
| "Three Strikes and You're Out" | |
| |
| |
| Retribution | |
| |
| |
| A System of Just Deserts | |
| |
| |
| Retribution and the Criminal Justice System | |
| |
| |
| Rehabilitation | |
| |
| |
| Rehabilitation and the Criminal Justice System | |
| |
| |
| Types of Treatment | |
| |
| |
| Does Rehabilitation Work? | |
| |
| |
| Reaffirming Rehabilitation | |
| |
| |
| Reintegrating the Offender into Society | |
| |
| |
| The Future of Rehabilitation | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |
| |
| |
| For Further Study | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solving the Crime Problem | |
| |
| |
| Ideological Approaches to Solving the Crime Problem | |
| |
| |
| The Conservative Approach | |
| |
| |
| The Liberal Approach | |
| |
| |
| The Radical Approach | |
| |
| |
| Attitudes toward the Causes and Prevention of Crime | |
| |
| |
| The Politics of Crime | |
| |
| |
| The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice | |
| |
| |
| The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration | |
| |
| |
| The 1968 and 1972 Presidential Elections | |
| |
| |
| The Crime Issue during the Reagan Administration | |
| |
| |
| The 1988 Presidential Election and the George H. W. Bush Administration | |
| |
| |
| The 1992 and 1996 Elections and the Clinton Administration | |
| |
| |
| The 2000 Presidential Election and the George W. Bush Administration | |
| |
| |
| Crime and the Criminal Justice System | |
| |
| |
| Overreach of the Criminal Law | |
| |
| |
| The Police | |
| |
| |
| The Courts | |
| |
| |
| The Prisons | |
| |
| |
| Situational Crime Prevention | |
| |
| |
| Target Hardening | |
| |
| |
| Self-Protective Measures | |
| |
| |
| Informal Social Control | |
| |
| |
| Community Crime Prevention | |
| |
| |
| Dealing with the Causes of Crime | |
| |
| |
| Economic Factors | |
| |
| |
| The Process of Social Change | |
| |
| |
| Political Factors | |
| |
| |
| Community Ties | |
| |
| |
| The Family | |
| |
| |
| The School | |
| |
| |
| Discrimination | |
| |
| |
| Conclusion | |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Important Terms | |
| |
| |
| Review Questions | |