| |
| |
Preface | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
An Introductory Overview | |
| |
| |
Ways of Knowing | |
| |
| |
Intuition and Reasoning Versus Empirical Observation: An Example | |
| |
| |
The Scientific Method | |
| |
| |
Characteristics of Scientific Observations | |
| |
| |
Rival Explanations | |
| |
| |
Defining the Terms | |
| |
| |
Replication | |
| |
| |
Internal and External Validity | |
| |
| |
Conducting a Research Study | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Ethics in Research | |
| |
| |
Guidelines for Psychologists | |
| |
| |
The Basic Ethical Dilemma | |
| |
| |
The Six General Ethical Principles | |
| |
| |
Specific Ethical Issues in Research with Humans | |
| |
| |
Risk or Freedom From Harm | |
| |
| |
Informed Consent | |
| |
| |
Debriefing | |
| |
| |
Privacy | |
| |
| |
Ethical Treatment of Animals as Research Subjects | |
| |
| |
Special Issues About the Ethics of Research | |
| |
| |
Who Decides What Is "Right?" | |
| |
| |
Ethics of Funding | |
| |
| |
Ethics and Statistics | |
| |
| |
What Becomes of What You Find? | |
| |
| |
A Final Note for New Researchers | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Variables | |
| |
| |
Variables Versus Constants: Definitions and Examples | |
| |
| |
How to Identify Variables Versus Constants | |
| |
| |
Types of Variables | |
| |
| |
Types of Relationships | |
| |
| |
No Relationship | |
| |
| |
Correlation | |
| |
| |
Causality | |
| |
| |
Necessary, Sufficient, and Contributory Causes | |
| |
| |
Simple Versus Multiple Causation | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Measuring Variables | |
| |
| |
Data-Gathering Techniques | |
| |
| |
Behavioral Observations | |
| |
| |
Self-Reports | |
| |
| |
Behavioral Ratings | |
| |
| |
Archival Records | |
| |
| |
Physical Trace Approach | |
| |
| |
Measurement | |
| |
| |
Operational Definitions: Measuring Variables | |
| |
| |
Operational Definitions: Establishing Research Conditions | |
| |
| |
Reliability and Validity | |
| |
| |
Reliability | |
| |
| |
Validity | |
| |
| |
Levels (or Scales) of Measurement | |
| |
| |
Sensitivity of Measurements | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Descriptive Statistics | |
| |
| |
Populations and Samples | |
| |
| |
About the Computations in This Text | |
| |
| |
Frequency | |
| |
| |
Graphing Frequencies | |
| |
| |
Grouped Frequencies | |
| |
| |
Probability | |
| |
| |
Central Tendency | |
| |
| |
Mode | |
| |
| |
Median | |
| |
| |
Mean | |
| |
| |
Means Versus Medians: The Case of Outliers | |
| |
| |
Distributions of Scores | |
| |
| |
The Normal Distribution | |
| |
| |
Skewed Distributions | |
| |
| |
Variability | |
| |
| |
Variance and Standard Deviation | |
| |
| |
Median Absolute Deviation | |
| |
| |
Standard Deviations Versus the Median Absolute Deviation: The Case of Outliers | |
| |
| |
Range | |
| |
| |
Number of Categories/Values | |
| |
| |
The Variation Ratio | |
| |
| |
Selecting Appropriate Descriptive Statistics | |
| |
| |
Simple Data Transformations | |
| |
| |
z-Scores | |
| |
| |
z-Scores as Inferential Statistics: Areas Under the Normal Curve | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Hypothesis Testing | |
| |
| |
Representativeness and Sampling Procedures | |
| |
| |
Random Sampling | |
| |
| |
Stratified Random Sampling | |
| |
| |
Available Samples and Convenience Sampling | |
| |
| |
Statistical Hypotheses | |
| |
| |
The Null Hypotheses (H[subscript 0]) | |
| |
| |
Research or Alternate Hypothesis (H[subscript 1]) | |
| |
| |
Sampling Distributions | |
| |
| |
The Shape of the Sampling Distribution | |
| |
| |
The Average of the Sampling Distribution | |
| |
| |
Variability of Sampling Distributions | |
| |
| |
Probabilities of Samples | |
| |
| |
Making the Decision | |
| |
| |
Significance Levels ([alpha]) | |
| |
| |
Critical Values | |
| |
| |
Tables of Critical Values | |
| |
| |
Have We Made the Correct Decision? | |
| |
| |
Threats to the Validity of Hypothesis-Testing: Pitfalls to Avoid | |
| |
| |
Statistical Versus Practical and Psychological Significance | |
| |
| |
The Relevant Error Rate and "Accepting" The Null Hypothesis | |
| |
| |
The Arbitrary Cut-off Point Between "Rare" and "Common" Events | |
| |
| |
Proposed Alternatives to the Null-Hypothesis-Testing Procedure | |
| |
| |
A Call for Compromise: Using a Combination of Approaches | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
General Research Methods | |
| |
| |
The Experimental Method | |
| |
| |
The Logic of Experiments | |
| |
| |
An Overview of the Experimental Method | |
| |
| |
An Alternative to Random Assignment: Repeated Measures | |
| |
| |
Research Settings for Experiments: Laboratory Versus Field Experiments | |
| |
| |
Quasi-Experimental Research Methods | |
| |
| |
Non-Equivalent Groups Designs | |
| |
| |
Time-Series Designs | |
| |
| |
Two Approaches to Analyzing the Results | |
| |
| |
Summary of Quasi-Experimental Methods | |
| |
| |
Correlational Methods | |
| |
| |
Naturalistic Observation | |
| |
| |
Summary of the Correlational Method | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Correlation Coefficients | |
| |
| |
Magnitude | |
| |
| |
Direction | |
| |
| |
Graphing the Relationship Between Two Variables | |
| |
| |
Selecting the Appropriate Correlation Coefficient | |
| |
| |
Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient | |
| |
| |
The Pearson r as an Inferential Statistic: Testing the Null Hypothesis | |
| |
| |
Spearman Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient | |
| |
| |
The Spearman r as an Inferential Statistic: Testing the Null Hypothesis | |
| |
| |
Tied Ranking Procedure | |
| |
| |
Correlating Nominal Data | |
| |
| |
Phi Coefficient | |
| |
| |
Testing the Difference Between Two Correlations | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction to Regression Analysis | |
| |
| |
The Logic Behind Simple Regression Analysis | |
| |
| |
The Regression Equation | |
| |
| |
About the Regression Equation | |
| |
| |
Assumptions and Limitations of the Least-Squares Method of Regression | |
| |
| |
Linearity | |
| |
| |
Normal Distributions and Homoscedasticity | |
| |
| |
Evaluating Y': How Accurate Are Our Predictions? | |
| |
| |
A Short-Cut for Computing the Standard Error of the Estimate | |
| |
| |
z-Scores and Regression Analysis | |
| |
| |
Coefficient of Determination | |
| |
| |
Using Venn Diagrams to Illustrate r[superscript 2] | |
| |
| |
The Basic Concepts of Multiple Regression | |
| |
| |
Using Venn Diagrams to Illustrate Multiple Regression and R[superscript 2] | |
| |
| |
Multicollinearity | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Designing Experiments and Quasi-Experiments | |
| |
| |
One-way Designs | |
| |
| |
Factorial Designs and the Concept of Interaction: "It Depends" | |
| |
| |
Multiple Determinants (or Predictors) of Behavior | |
| |
| |
Contingencies Among Determinants: The Essence of Interaction | |
| |
| |
Terminology and Notation Systems for Factorial Designs | |
| |
| |
Factorial Designs and Confounds | |
| |
| |
The Research Questions Addressed in Factorial Designs | |
| |
| |
Selecting Only the Necessary Independent Variables | |
| |
| |
Selecting the Necessary Levels of the Independent Variables | |
| |
| |
No-Treatment Control Group | |
| |
| |
Placebo Control Groups | |
| |
| |
Research Designs | |
| |
| |
Comparisons Between Groups Versus Repeated Measures | |
| |
| |
Testing Participants Repeatedly in Within-Subjects Designs | |
| |
| |
Advantages of Within-Subjects Designs | |
| |
| |
Disadvantages of Within-Subjects Designs | |
| |
| |
Counterbalancing | |
| |
| |
Summary of Within-Subjects Designs | |
| |
| |
Advantages and Disadvantages of Between-Subjects Designs | |
| |
| |
Matching Designs | |
| |
| |
Some General Confounds: Threats to Internal Validity | |
| |
| |
Maturation | |
| |
| |
History | |
| |
| |
Regression Toward the Mean | |
| |
| |
Instrumentation | |
| |
| |
Mortality | |
| |
| |
Sensitization | |
| |
| |
Pretest-Posttest Designs: The Need for a Control Group | |
| |
| |
Selecting Within-Subjects Factors for Mixed Designs | |
| |
| |
The Special Case of Age as an Independent Variable | |
| |
| |
Steps in Designing an Experiment or Quasi-Experiment | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
The z-Test and t-Test: Analyzing Data from One-and Two-Group Designs | |
| |
| |
The z-Test: When the Population Standard Deviation ([sigma]) Is Known | |
| |
| |
z-Test: Application 1: When the Population Mean ([mu]) Is Known | |
| |
| |
z-Test Application 2: When the Population Mean ([mu]) Is Being Tested | |
| |
| |
Requirements for the z-Test | |
| |
| |
The t-Test: When the Population Standard Deviation ([sigma]) Is Unknown | |
| |
| |
One-Sample t-Test | |
| |
| |
Two-Sample t-Test: Independent Samples From a Between-Subjects Design | |
| |
| |
Two-Sample t-Test: Related Samples From a Within-Subjects or Matching Design | |
| |
| |
The Limited Applicability of z- and t-Tests | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Analysis of Variance | |
| |
| |
Sources of Variation | |
| |
| |
Between-Subjects Designs | |
| |
| |
Within-Subjects Designs | |
| |
| |
Factorial Designs | |
| |
| |
Mixed Designs | |
| |
| |
Computing Sums of Squares | |
| |
| |
One-way BS-ANOVA | |
| |
| |
Two-way BS-ANOVA | |
| |
| |
One-way RM-ANOVA | |
| |
| |
Degrees of Freedom | |
| |
| |
Mean Squares | |
| |
| |
The F-Ratio | |
| |
| |
Testing the Significance of F | |
| |
| |
Post Hoc Analyses | |
| |
| |
Dunn's Multiple Comparisons Procedure | |
| |
| |
| |
Example of a One-way BS-ANOVA | |
| |
| |
| |
Example of a 2 [times] 3 (Two-way) BS-ANOVA | |
| |
| |
| |
Example of a One-way RM-ANOVA | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Nonparametric Tests for Experiments and Quasi-Experiments | |
| |
| |
Nominal Scales | |
| |
| |
Between-Subjects Designs: Chi-Square (X[superscript 2]) | |
| |
| |
Within-Subjects Designs: Cochran's Q | |
| |
| |
Ordinal Scales | |
| |
| |
Between-Subjects Designs: The Wilcoxon Rank Sum Test and the Kruskal-Wallis H | |
| |
| |
Within-Subjects Designs: Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test (a.k.a. the Wilcoxon W) | |
| |
| |
A Cautionary Note about When to Select the Appropriate Statistic | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Estimation and Confidence Intervals | |
| |
| |
Confidence Intervals for the Mean | |
| |
| |
Finding the Margin of Error: The Maximum Error of the Estimate | |
| |
| |
Confidence Interval: The Range of Likely Values of the Population Mean | |
| |
| |
Summary: Steps in Computing the Confidence Interval for the Mean | |
| |
| |
Confidence Intervals for Proportions (or Percentages) | |
| |
| |
Numerical Examples of Confidence Intervals for Proportions (or Percentages) | |
| |
| |
Limitations of Confidence Intervals for Proportions (or Percentages) | |
| |
| |
Confidence Intervals for Pearson Correlations | |
| |
| |
Numerical Example of Confidence Intervals for the Pearson Correlation | |
| |
| |
Minimum Differences Between Treatment Means | |
| |
| |
Minimum Differences in Two-Group Between-Subjects Designs | |
| |
| |
Minimum Differences in Two-Treatment Related-Samples Designs | |
| |
| |
Confidence Intervals Versus Significance Testing | |
| |
| |
Numerical Example of Confidence Intervals That Do Not Overlap | |
| |
| |
Numerical Example of Confidence Intervals That Overlap | |
| |
| |
Confidence Intervals and Statistical Power | |
| |
| |
Renewing the Call for Compromise: Combining the Approaches | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Single-Subject Research Design | |
| |
| |
Key Elements of Single-Subject Research | |
| |
| |
Elements of Measurement | |
| |
| |
Design Phases in Single-Subject Research Designs | |
| |
| |
Presentation of Data | |
| |
| |
Threats to the Validity of Data from Single-Subject Designs | |
| |
| |
Specific Research Designs | |
| |
| |
ABAB Designs | |
| |
| |
Multiple-Baseline Designs | |
| |
| |
The Changing Criterion Design | |
| |
| |
Alternating Treatment Designs | |
| |
| |
Mixed Designs | |
| |
| |
Single-Subject Designs for Applied and Basic Research Questions | |
| |
| |
Evaluation of Data from Single-Subject Designs | |
| |
| |
Visual Inspection | |
| |
| |
Interpreting the Data from Single-Subject Research | |
| |
| |
Potential Confounds and Problems in the Visual Interpretation of Data | |
| |
| |
Resources for Further Study | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Qualitative Research Methods and Analysis | |
| |
| |
Qualitative Methods for Gathering Data | |
| |
| |
Observation | |
| |
| |
Interviews | |
| |
| |
Textual Analysis | |
| |
| |
Transcription | |
| |
| |
Reliability and Validity in Qualitative Research | |
| |
| |
Triangulation of Methods: Increasing the Validity | |
| |
| |
A Case Study Illustrating Triangulation of Qualitative Research Methods | |
| |
| |
Statistics for Qualitative Methods | |
| |
| |
The Future of Qualitative Methods | |
| |
| |
Suggestions for Further Reading | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Appendix A | |
| |
| |
Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct | |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
Preamble | |
| |
| |
General Principles | |
| |
| |
| |
Competence | |
| |
| |
| |
Integrity | |
| |
| |
| |
Professional and Scientific Responsibility | |
| |
| |
| |
Respect for People's Rights and Dignity | |
| |
| |
| |
Concern for Others' Welfare | |
| |
| |
| |
Social Responsibility | |
| |
| |
Ethical Standards | |
| |
| |
| |
General Standards | |
| |
| |
| |
Evaluation, Assessment, or Intervention | |
| |
| |
| |
Advertising and Other Public Statements | |
| |
| |
| |
Therapy | |
| |
| |
| |
Privacy and Confidentiality | |
| |
| |
| |
Teaching, Training Supervision, Research, and Publishing | |
| |
| |
| |
Forensic Activities | |
| |
| |
| |
Resolving Ethical Issues | |
| |
| |
Appendix B | |
| |
| |
Statistical Tables | |
| |
| |
Appendix C | |
| |
| |
Introduction to Statistical Power | |
| |
| |
Two Variances | |
| |
| |
Using the Two Variances to Test the Null Hypothesis | |
| |
| |
Statistical Power | |
| |
| |
Maximizing the Power in a Study | |
| |
| |
Adequate Sample Size | |
| |
| |
Lower Significance ([alpha]) Levels | |
| |
| |
Selecting Designs with More Inherent Power | |
| |
| |
Power Analysis | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Appendix D | |
| |
| |
Reporting the Research | |
| |
| |
Methods of Dissemination | |
| |
| |
Presentations at Professional Meetings | |
| |
| |
Written Reports | |
| |
| |
Electronic Dissemination | |
| |
| |
General Writing Style | |
| |
| |
Some Specific Issues and Common Errors | |
| |
| |
Re-writing | |
| |
| |
Plagiarism | |
| |
| |
APA Format and Manuscript Preparation | |
| |
| |
Sections of an APA-Format Research Report | |
| |
| |
Examples of References Using the APA Format | |
| |
| |
Manuscript Headings | |
| |
| |
Sample Manuscripts | |
| |
| |
Appendix E | |
| |
| |
Answers for the Odd-Numbered Exercises | |
| |
| |
Appendix F | |
| |
| |
References | |
| |
| |
Glossary | |
| |
| |
Index | |