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| Introduction | |
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| Definition of Surveying | |
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| Geomatics | |
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| History of Surveying | |
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| Geodetic and Plane Surveys | |
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| Importance of Surveying | |
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| Specialized Types of Surveys | |
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| Surveying Safety | |
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| Land and Geographic Information Systems | |
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| Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies | |
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| The Surveying Profession | |
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| Professional Surveying Organizations | |
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| Surveying on the Internet | |
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| Future Challenges in Surveying | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Units, Significant Figures, and Field Notes | |
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| Units and Significant Figures | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Units of Measurement | |
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| International System of Units (SI) | |
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| Significant Figures | |
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| Rounding Off Numbers | |
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| Field Notes | |
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| Field Notes | |
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| General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes | |
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| Types of Field Books | |
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| Kinds of Notes | |
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| Arrangements of Notes | |
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| Suggestions for Recording Notes | |
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| Introduction to Data Collectors | |
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| Transfer of Files from Data Collectors | |
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| Digital Data File Management | |
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| Advantages and Disadvantages of Data Collectors | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Theory of Errors in Observations | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Direct and Indirect Observations | |
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| Errors in Measurements | |
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| Mistakes | |
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| Sources of Errors in Making Observations | |
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| Types of Errors | |
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| Precision and Accuracy | |
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| Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors | |
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| Probability | |
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| Most Probable Value | |
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| Residuals | |
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| Occurrence of Random Errors | |
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| General Laws of Probability | |
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| Measures of Precision | |
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| Interpretation of Standard Deviation | |
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| The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors | |
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| Error Propagation | |
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| Applications | |
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| Conditional Adjustment of Observations | |
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| Weights of Observations | |
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| Least-Squares Adjustment | |
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| Using Software | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Leveling���Theory, Methods, and Equipment | |
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| Leveling���Theory and Methods | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Definitions | |
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| North American Vertical Datum | |
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| Curvature and Refraction | |
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| Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation | |
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| Equipment for Differential Leveling | |
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| Categories of Levels | |
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| Telescopes | |
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| Level Vials | |
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| Tilting Levels | |
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| Automatic Levels | |
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| Digital Levels | |
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| Tripods | |
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| Hand Level | |
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| Level Rods | |
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| Testing and Adjusting Levels | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Leveling���Field Procedures and Computations | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Carrying and Setting Up a Level | |
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| Duties of a Rodperson | |
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| Differential Leveling | |
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| Precision | |
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| Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits | |
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| Reciprocal Leveling | |
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| Three-Wire Leveling | |
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| Profile Leveling | |
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| Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling | |
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| Use of the Hand Level | |
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| Sources of Error in Leveling | |
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| Mistakes | |
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| Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes | |
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| Using Software | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Distance Measurement | |
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| Methods for Measuring Distances | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements | |
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| Pacing | |
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| Odometer Readings | |
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| Optical Rangefinders | |
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| Tacheometry | |
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| Subtense Bar | |
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| Distance Measurements by Taping | |
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| Introduction to Taping | |
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| Taping Equipment and Accessories | |
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| Care of Taping Equipment | |
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| Taping on Level Ground | |
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| Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground | |
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| Slope Measurements | |
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| Sources of Error in Taping | |
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| Tape Problems | |
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| Combined Corrections in a Taping Problem | |
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| Electronic Distance Measurement | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy | |
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| Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement | |
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| Electro-Optical Instruments | |
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| Total Station Instruments | |
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| EDM Instruments Without Reflectors | |
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| Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances | |
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| Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement | |
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| Using Software | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Angles, Azimuths, and Bearings | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Units of Angle Measurement | |
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| Kinds of Horizontal Angles | |
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| Direction of a Line | |
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| Azimuths | |
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| Bearings | |
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| Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings | |
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| Computing Azimuths | |
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| Computing Bearings | |
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| The Compass and the Earth's Magnetic Field | |
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| Magnetic Declination | |
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| Variations in Magnetic Declination | |
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| Software for Determining Magnetic Declination | |
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| Local Attraction | |
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| Typical Magnetic Declination Problems | |
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| Mistakes | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Total Station Instruments; Angle Observations | |
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| Total Station Instruments | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Characteristics of Total Station Instruments | |
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| Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments | |
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| Parts of a Total Station Instrument | |
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| Handling and Setting Up a Total Station Instrument | |
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| Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments | |
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| Angle Observations | |
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| Relationship of Angles and Distances | |
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| Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments | |
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| Observing Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method | |
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| Closing the Horizon | |
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| Observing Deflection Angles | |
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| Observing Azimuths | |
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| Observing Vertical Angles | |
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| Sights and Marks | |
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| Prolonging a Straight Line | |
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| Balancing-In | |
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| Random Traverse | |
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| Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences | |
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| Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories | |
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| Sources of Error in Total Station Work | |
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| Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations | |
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| Mistakes | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Traversing | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions | |
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| Observation of Traverse Lengths | |
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| Selection of Traverse Stations | |
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| Referencing Traverse Stations | |
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| Traverse Field Notes | |
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| Angle Misclosure | |
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| Traversing with Total Station Instruments | |
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| Radial Traversing | |
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| Sources of Error in Traversing | |
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| Mistakes in Traversing | |
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| Problems | |
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| Traverse Computations | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Balancing Angles | |
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| Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings | |
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| DePartures and Latitudes | |
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| DeParture and Latitude Closure Conditions | |
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| Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision | |
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| Traverse Adjustment | |
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| Rectangular Coordinates | |
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| Alternative Methods for Making Traverse Computations | |
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| Inversing | |
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| Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions | |
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| Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys | |
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| Use of Open Traverses | |
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| State Plane Coordinate Systems | |
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| Traverse Computations Using Computers | |
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| Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations | |
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| Mistakes in Traverse Computations | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Coordinate Geometry in Surveying Calculations | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles | |
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| Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line | |
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| Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions | |
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| Intersection of a Line with a Circle | |
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| Intersection of Two Circles | |
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| Three-Point Resection | |
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| Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation | |
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| Inaccessible Point Problem | |
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| Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection | |
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| Software | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Area | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Methods of Measuring Area | |
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| Area by Division Into Simple Figures | |
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| Area by Offsets from Straight Lines | |
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| Area by Coordinates | |
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| Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method | |
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| Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries | |
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| Partitioning of Lands | |
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| Area by Measurements from Maps | |
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| Software | |
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| Sources of Error in Determining Areas | |
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| Mistakes in Determining Areas | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Global Navigation Satellite Systems Introduction and Principles of Operation | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Overview of GPS | |
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| The GPS Signal | |
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| Reference Coordinate Systems | |
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| Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning | |
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| Errors in Observations | |
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| Differential Positioning | |
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| Kinematic Methods | |
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| Relative Positioning | |
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| Other Satellite Navigation Systems | |
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| The Future | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Global Navigation Satellite Systems Static Surveys | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Field Procedures in Satellite Surveys | |
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| Planning Satellite Surveys | |
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| Performing Static Surveys | |
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| Data Processing and Analysis | |
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| Sources of Errors in Satellite Surveys | |
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| Mistakes in Satellite Surveys | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Global Navigation Satellite Systems Kinematic Surveys | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Planning of Kinematic Surveys | |
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| Initialization | |
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| Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys | |
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| Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys | |
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| Performing Post-Processed Kinematic Surveys | |
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| Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys | |
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| Real-Time Networks | |
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| Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys | |
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| Machine Control | |
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| Errors in Kinematic Surveys | |
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| Mistakes in Kinematic Surveys | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Adjustments by Least Squares | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Fundamental Condition of Least Squares | |
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| Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method | |
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| Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment | |
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| Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities | |
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| Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits | |
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| Propagation of Errors | |
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| Least-Squares Adjustment of GNSS Baseline Vectors | |
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| Least-Squares Adjustment of Conventional Horizontal Plane Surveys | |
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| The Error Ellipse | |
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| Adjustment Procedures | |
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| Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations | |
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| Software | |
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| Conclusions | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Mapping Surveys | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys | |
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| Map Scale | |
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| Control for Mapping Surveys | |
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| Contours | |
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| Characteristics of Contours | |
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| Direct and Indirect Methods of Locating Contours | |
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| Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems | |
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| Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details | |
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| Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation | |
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| Selection of Field Method | |
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| Working with Data Collectors and Field-to-Finish Software | |
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| Hydrographic Surveys | |
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| Sources of Error in Mapping Surveys | |
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| Mistakes in Mapping Surveys | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Mapping | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Availability of Maps and Related Information | |
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| National Mapping Program | |
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| Accuracy Standards for Mapping | |
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| Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures | |
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| Map Design | |
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| Map Layout | |
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| Basic Map Plotting Procedures | |
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| Contour Interval | |
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| Plotting Contours | |
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| Lettering | |
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| Cartographic Map Elements | |
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| Drafting Materials | |
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| Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems | |
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| Impacts of Modern Land and Geographic Information Systems on Mapping | |
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| Sources of Error in Mapping | |
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| Mistakes in Mapping | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Control Surveys and Geodetic Reductions | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Ellipsoid and Geoid | |
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| The Conventional Terrestrial Pole | |
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| Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature | |
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| Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical | |
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| U.S. Reference Frames | |
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| Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys | |
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| The National Spatial Reference System | |
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| Hierarchy of the National Horizontal Control Network | |
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| Hierarchy of the National Vertical Control Network | |
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| Control Point Descriptions | |
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| Field Procedures for Traditional Horizontal Control Surveys | |
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| Field Procedures for Vertical Control Surveys | |
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| Reduction of Field Observations to Their Geodetic Values | |
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| Geodetic Position Computations | |
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| The Local Geodetic Coordinate System | |
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| Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations | |
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| Software | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| State Plane Coordinates and Other Map Projections | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Projections Used in State Plane Coordinate Systems | |
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| Lambert Conformal Conic Projection | |
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| Transverse Mercator Projection | |
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| State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83 | |
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| Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Lambert Conformal Conic System | |
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| Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System | |
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| Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids | |
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| Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations | |
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| Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another | |
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| Conversions Between SPCS27 and SPCS83 | |
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| The Universal Transverse Mercator Projection | |
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| Other Map Projections | |
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| Map Projection Software | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Boundary Surveys | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Categories of Land Surveys | |
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| Historical Perspectives | |
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| Property Description by Metes and Bounds | |
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| Property Description by Block-and-Lot System | |
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| Property Description by Coordinates | |
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| Retracement Surveys | |
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| Subdivision Surveys | |
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| Partitioning Land | |
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| Registration of Title | |
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| Adverse Possession and Easements | |
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| Condominium Surveys | |
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| Geographic and Land Information Systems | |
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| Sources of Error in Boundary Surveys | |
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| Mistakes | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Surveys of the Public Lands | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands | |
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| Initial Point | |
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| Principal Meridian | |
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| Baseline | |
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| Standard Parallels (Correction Lines) | |
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| Guide Meridians | |
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| Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines | |
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| Designation of Townships | |
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| Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships | |
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| Subdivision of a Township into Sections | |
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| Subdivision of Sections | |
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| Fractional Sections | |
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| Notes | |
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| Outline of Subdivision Steps | |
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| Marking Corners | |
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| Witness Corners | |
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| Meander Corners | |
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| Lost and Obliterated Corners | |
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| Accuracy of Public Lands Surveys | |
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| Descriptions by Township Section and Smaller Subdivision | |
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| BLM Land Information System | |
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| Sources of Error | |
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| Mistakes | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Construction Surveys | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Specialized Equipment for Construction Surveys | |
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| Horizontal and Vertical Control | |
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| Staking Out a Pipeline | |
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| Staking Pipeline Grades | |
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| Staking Out a Building | |
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| Staking Out Highways | |
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| Other Construction Surveys | |
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| Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments | |
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| Construction Surveys Using GNSS Equipment | |
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| Machine Guidance and Control | |
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| As-Built Surveys with Laser Scanning | |
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| Sources of Error in Construction Surveys | |
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| Mistakes | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Horizontal Curves | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Degree of Circular Curve | |
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| Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas | |
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| Circular Curve Stationing | |
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| General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles | |
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| Computing Deflection Angles and Chords | |
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| Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords | |
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| Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords | |
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| Setups on Curve | |
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| Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords | |
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| Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords | |
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| Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve | |
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| Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates | |
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| Curve Stakeout Using GNSS Receivers and Robotic Total Stations | |
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| Circular Curve Layout by Offsets | |
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| Special Circular Curve Problems | |
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| Compound and Reverse Curves | |
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| Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves | |
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| Spirals | |
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| Computation of "As-Built" Circular Alignments | |
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| Sources of Error in Laying Out Circular Curves | |
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| Mistakes | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Vertical Curves | |
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| Introduction | |
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| General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve | |
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| Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve | |
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| High or Low Point on a Vertical Curve | |
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| Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent Offset Equation | |
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| Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola | |
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| Curve Computations by Proportion | |
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| Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve | |
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| Machine Control in Grading Operations | |
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| Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve | |
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| Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point | |
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| Sight Distance | |
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| Sources of Error in Laying Out Vertical Curves | |
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| Mistakes | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Volumes | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Methods of Volume Measurement | |
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| The Cross-Section Method | |
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| Types of Cross Sections | |
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| Average-End-Area Formula | |
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| Determining End Areas | |
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| Computing Slope Intercepts | |
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| Prismoidal Formula | |
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| Volume Computations | |
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| Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method | |
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| Contour-Area Method | |
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| Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge | |
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| Software | |
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| Sources of Error in Determining Volumes | |
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| Mistakes | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Photogrammetry | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Uses of Photogrammetry | |
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| Aerial Cameras | |
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| Types of Aerial Photographs | |
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| Vertical Aerial Photographs | |
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| Scale of a Vertical Photograph | |
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| Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph | |
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| Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph | |
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| Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph | |
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| Stereoscopic Parallax | |
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| Stereoscopic Viewing | |
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| Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax | |
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| Analytical Photogrammetry | |
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| Stereoscopic Plotting Instruments | |
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| Orthophotos | |
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| Ground Control for Photogrammetry | |
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| Flight Planning | |
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| Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems | |
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| Remote Sensing | |
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| Software | |
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| Sources of Error in Photogrammetry | |
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| Mistakes | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Introduction to Geographic Information Systems | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Land Information Systems | |
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| GIS Data Sources and Classifications | |
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| Spatial Data | |
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| Nonspatial Data | |
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| Data Format Conversions | |
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| Creating GIS Databases | |
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| Metadata | |
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| GIS Analytical Functions | |
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| GIS Applications | |
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| Data Sources | |
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| Problems | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Dumpy Levels, Transits, And Theodolites | |
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| Example Noteforms | |
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| Astronomical Observations | |
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| Using the Worksheets From the Companion Website | |
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| Introduction to Matrices | |
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| U.S. State Plane Coordinate System Defining Parameters | |
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| Answers to Selected Problems | |
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| Index | |