| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| |
| An Introduction to Geology | |
| |
| |
| The Science of Geology | |
| |
| |
| Historical Notes about Geology | |
| |
| |
| Catastrophism | |
| |
| |
| The Birth of Modern Geology | |
| |
| |
| Geologic Time | |
| |
| |
| The Nature of Scientific Inquiry | |
| |
| |
| Hypothesis | |
| |
| |
| Theory | |
| |
| |
| Scientific Methods | |
| |
| |
| A View of Earth | |
| |
| |
| Hydrosphere | |
| |
| |
| Atmosphere | |
| |
| |
| The Solid Earth | |
| |
| |
| Biosphere | |
| |
| |
| Dynamic Earth | |
| |
| |
| Plate Tectonics | |
| |
| |
| Plate Boundaries | |
| |
| |
| Earth as a System: The Rock Cycle | |
| |
| |
| The Basic Cycle | |
| |
| |
| Alternative Paths | |
| |
| |
| The Rock Cycle and Plate Tectonics | |
| |
| |
| Box 1.1 Earth as a System | |
| |
| |
| |
| Minerals: The Building Blocks of Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Minerals: The Building Blocks of Rocks | |
| |
| |
| The Composition and Structure of Minerals | |
| |
| |
| Atomic Structure | |
| |
| |
| How Atoms Bond Together | |
| |
| |
| Isotopes and Radioactive Decay | |
| |
| |
| Properties of Minerals | |
| |
| |
| Crystal Form | |
| |
| |
| Luster | |
| |
| |
| Color | |
| |
| |
| Streak | |
| |
| |
| Hardness | |
| |
| |
| Cleavage | |
| |
| |
| Fracture | |
| |
| |
| Specific Gravity | |
| |
| |
| Other Properties of Minerals | |
| |
| |
| Mineral Groups | |
| |
| |
| The Silicates | |
| |
| |
| Common Silicate Minerals | |
| |
| |
| Important Nonsilicate Minerals | |
| |
| |
| Mineral Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Asbestos: What Are the Risks | |
| |
| |
| |
| Igneous Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Crystallization of Magma | |
| |
| |
| Igneous Textures | |
| |
| |
| Factors Affecting Crystal Size | |
| |
| |
| Types of Igneous Textures | |
| |
| |
| Igneous Compositions | |
| |
| |
| Bowen's Reaction Series | |
| |
| |
| Magmatic Differentiation | |
| |
| |
| Assimilation and Magma Mixing | |
| |
| |
| Naming Igneous Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Igneous Rock Types | |
| |
| |
| Felsic (Granitic) Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Intermediate (Andesitic) Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Mafic (Basaltic) Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Pyroclastic Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Mineral Resources and Igneous Processes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bingham Canyon, Utah | |
| |
| |
| |
| Volcanoes and Other Igneous Activity | |
| |
| |
| The Nature of Volcanic Eruptions | |
| |
| |
| Factors Affecting Viscosity | |
| |
| |
| Importance of Dissolved Gases | |
| |
| |
| Materials Extruded During an Eruption | |
| |
| |
| Lava Flows | |
| |
| |
| Gases | |
| |
| |
| Pyroclastic Materials | |
| |
| |
| Volcanoes and Volcanic Eruptions | |
| |
| |
| Shield Volcanoes | |
| |
| |
| Cinder Cones | |
| |
| |
| Composite Cones | |
| |
| |
| Nuee Ardente: A Deadly Pyroclastic Flow | |
| |
| |
| Lahar | |
| |
| |
| Other Volcanic Landforms | |
| |
| |
| Calderas and Pyroclastic Flows | |
| |
| |
| Fissure Eruptions and Lava Plateaus | |
| |
| |
| Volcanic Pipes and Necks | |
| |
| |
| Intrusive Igneous Activity | |
| |
| |
| Dikes | |
| |
| |
| Sills | |
| |
| |
| Laccoliths | |
| |
| |
| Batholiths | |
| |
| |
| Igneous Activity and Plate Tectonics | |
| |
| |
| Origin of Magma | |
| |
| |
| Partial Melting and Magma Compositions | |
| |
| |
| Distribution of Igneous Activity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mount St. Helens: Anatomy of an Eruption | |
| |
| |
| |
| Volcano Sizes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Volcanoes and Climate | |
| |
| |
| |
| Weathering and Soils | |
| |
| |
| Earth's External Processes | |
| |
| |
| Weathering | |
| |
| |
| Mechanical Weathering | |
| |
| |
| Frost Wedging | |
| |
| |
| Unloading | |
| |
| |
| Biological Activity | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Weathering | |
| |
| |
| Water and Carbonic Acid | |
| |
| |
| How Granite Weathers | |
| |
| |
| Weathering of Silicate Minerals | |
| |
| |
| Spheroidal Weathering | |
| |
| |
| Rates of Weathering | |
| |
| |
| Mineral Makeup | |
| |
| |
| Climate | |
| |
| |
| Differential Weathering | |
| |
| |
| Soil | |
| |
| |
| An Interface in the Earth System | |
| |
| |
| What Is Soil? | |
| |
| |
| Controls of Soil Formation | |
| |
| |
| Parent Material | |
| |
| |
| Time | |
| |
| |
| Climate | |
| |
| |
| Plans and Animals | |
| |
| |
| Slope | |
| |
| |
| The Soil Profile | |
| |
| |
| Soil Types | |
| |
| |
| Pedalfer | |
| |
| |
| Pedocal | |
| |
| |
| Laterite | |
| |
| |
| Soil Erosion | |
| |
| |
| How Soil Is Eroded | |
| |
| |
| Rates of Erosion | |
| |
| |
| Sedimentation and Chemical Pollution | |
| |
| |
| Weathering Creates Ore Deposits | |
| |
| |
| Bauxite | |
| |
| |
| Other Deposits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Laterites and the Clearing of the Rain Forest | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sedimentary Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Types of Sedimentary Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Detrital Sedimentary Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Shale | |
| |
| |
| Sandstone | |
| |
| |
| Conglomerate and Breccia | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Sedimentary Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Limestone | |
| |
| |
| Dolostone | |
| |
| |
| Chert | |
| |
| |
| Evaporites | |
| |
| |
| Coal | |
| |
| |
| Turning Sediment into Sedimentary Rock | |
| |
| |
| Classification of Sedimentary Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Sedimentary Rocks Represent Past Environments | |
| |
| |
| Sedimentary Structures | |
| |
| |
| Nonmetallic Mineral Resources From Sedimentary Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Energy Resources From Sedimentary Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Coal | |
| |
| |
| Oil and Natural Gas | |
| |
| |
| |
| United States Per Capita Use of Mineral and Energy Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Metamorphic Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Metamorphic Environments | |
| |
| |
| Agents of Metamorphism | |
| |
| |
| Heat as a Metamorphic Agent | |
| |
| |
| Pressure and Stress as Metamorphic Agents | |
| |
| |
| Chemical Activity as a Metamorphic Agent | |
| |
| |
| How Metamorphism Alters Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Textural Changes | |
| |
| |
| Mineralogical Changes | |
| |
| |
| Common Metamorphic Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Foliated Metamorphic Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Nonfoliated Metamorphic Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Contact Metamorphism | |
| |
| |
| Metamorphism Along Fault Zones | |
| |
| |
| Regional Metamorphism | |
| |
| |
| Zones of Regional Metamorphism | |
| |
| |
| Metamorphism and Mineral Resources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Impact Metamorphism and Tectites | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mass Wasting: The Work of Gravity | |
| |
| |
| Mass Wasting and Landform Development | |
| |
| |
| Controls and Triggers of Mass Wasting | |
| |
| |
| The Role of Water | |
| |
| |
| Oversteepened Slopes | |
| |
| |
| Vegetation | |
| |
| |
| Earthquakes as Triggers | |
| |
| |
| Classification of Mass-Wasting Processes | |
| |
| |
| Type of Material | |
| |
| |
| Type of Motion | |
| |
| |
| Rate of Movement | |
| |
| |
| Slump | |
| |
| |
| Rockslide | |
| |
| |
| Debris Flow | |
| |
| |
| Debris Flows in Semiarid Regions | |
| |
| |
| Lahars | |
| |
| |
| Earthflow | |
| |
| |
| Slow Movements | |
| |
| |
| Creep | |
| |
| |
| Solifluction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reducing Debris-Flow Hazards in the San Francisco Bay Region | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Sensitive Permafrost Landscape | |
| |
| |
| |
| Running Water | |
| |
| |
| Earth as a System: The Hydrologic Cycle | |
| |
| |
| Running Water | |
| |
| |
| Streamflow | |
| |
| |
| Gradient and Channel Characteristics | |
| |
| |
| Discharge | |
| |
| |
| Changes From Upstream to Downstream | |
| |
| |
| Base Level and Graded Streams | |
| |
| |
| Work of Streams | |
| |
| |
| Erosion | |
| |
| |
| Transportation | |
| |
| |
| Deposition | |
| |
| |
| Stream Valleys | |
| |
| |
| Narrow Valleys | |
| |
| |
| Wide Valleys | |
| |
| |
| Floods and Flood Control | |
| |
| |
| Causes of Floods | |
| |
| |
| Flood Control | |
| |
| |
| Drainage Basins and Patterns | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Effect of Urbanization on Discharge | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Red River Floods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Groundwater | |
| |
| |
| Importance of Underground Water | |
| |
| |
| Distribution of Underground Water | |
| |
| |
| The Water Table | |
| |
| |
| How Groundwater Moves | |
| |
| |
| Factors Affecting the Storage and Movement of Groundwater | |
| |
| |
| Porosity | |
| |
| |
| Permeability, Aquitards and Aquifers | |
| |
| |
| Springs | |
| |
| |
| Wells | |
| |
| |
| Artesian Wells | |
| |
| |
| Environmental Problems Associated With Groundwater | |
| |
| |
| Treating Groundwater as a Nonrenewable Resource | |
| |
| |
| Land Subsidence Caused by Groundwater Withdrawal | |
| |
| |
| Groundwater Contamination | |
| |
| |
| Hot Springs and Geysers | |
| |
| |
| Geothermal Energy | |
| |
| |
| The Geologic Work of Groundwater | |
| |
| |
| Caverns | |
| |
| |
| Karst Topography | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Ogallala Aquifer--How Long Will the Water Last? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Glaciers and Glaciation | |
| |
| |
| Glaciers: A Part of Two Basic Cycles | |
| |
| |
| Valley (Alpine) Glaciers | |
| |
| |
| Ice Sheets | |
| |
| |
| Other Types of Glaciers | |
| |
| |
| How Glaciers Move | |
| |
| |
| Rates of Glacial Movement | |
| |
| |
| Budget of a Glacier | |
| |
| |
| Glacial Erosion | |
| |
| |
| Landforms Created by Glacial Erosion | |
| |
| |
| Glaciated Valleys | |
| |
| |
| Aretes and Horns | |
| |
| |
| Roches Moutonnees | |
| |
| |
| Glacial Deposits | |
| |
| |
| Types of Glacial Drift | |
| |
| |
| Moraines, Outwash Plains, and Kettles | |
| |
| |
| Drumlins, Eskers, and Kames | |
| |
| |
| Glaciers of the Ice Age | |
| |
| |
| Some Indirect Effects of Ice Age Glaciers | |
| |
| |
| Causes of Glaciation | |
| |
| |
| Plate Tectonics | |
| |
| |
| Variations in Earth's Orbit | |
| |
| |
| |
| What If the Ice Melted? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice | |
| |
| |
| |
| Deserts and Wind | |
| |
| |
| Common Misconceptions | |
| |
| |
| Distribution and Causes of Dry Lands | |
| |
| |
| Low-Latitude Deserts | |
| |
| |
| Middle-Latitude Deserts | |
| |
| |
| Geologic Processes In Aird Climates | |
| |
| |
| Weathering | |
| |
| |
| The Role of Water | |
| |
| |
| Basin and Range: The Evolution of Desert Landscape | |
| |
| |
| Transportation of Sediment by Wind | |
| |
| |
| Bed Load | |
| |
| |
| Suspended Load | |
| |
| |
| Wind Erosion | |
| |
| |
| Deflation, Blowouts, and Desert Pavement | |
| |
| |
| Wind Abrasion | |
| |
| |
| Wind Deposits | |
| |
| |
| Sand Deposits | |
| |
| |
| Types of Sand Dunes | |
| |
| |
| Loess Deposits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Desertification: A Global Environmental Problem | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dust Bowl: Soil Erosion in the Great Plains | |
| |
| |
| |
| Shorelines | |
| |
| |
| Waves | |
| |
| |
| Characteristics of Waves | |
| |
| |
| Types of Waves | |
| |
| |
| Wave Erosion | |
| |
| |
| Wave Refraction | |
| |
| |
| Moving Sand Along the Beach | |
| |
| |
| Shoreline Features | |
| |
| |
| Wave-Cut Cliffs and Platforms | |
| |
| |
| Arches, Stacks, Spits, and Bars | |
| |
| |
| Barrier Islands | |
| |
| |
| The Evolving Shore | |
| |
| |
| Shoreline Erosion Problems | |
| |
| |
| Groins | |
| |
| |
| Breakwaters and Seawalls | |
| |
| |
| Beach Nourishment | |
| |
| |
| Abandonment and Relocation | |
| |
| |
| Contrasting the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts | |
| |
| |
| Emergent and Submergent Coasts | |
| |
| |
| Tides | |
| |
| |
| Causes of Tides | |
| |
| |
| Spring and Neap Tides | |
| |
| |
| Tidal Currents | |
| |
| |
| |
| Louisana's Vanishing Coastal Wetlands | |
| |
| |
| |
| Is Global Warming Causing Sea Level to Rise? | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Ocean Floor | |
| |
| |
| The Vast World Ocean | |
| |
| |
| Mapping the Ocean Floor | |
| |
| |
| Continental Margins | |
| |
| |
| Passive Continental Margins | |
| |
| |
| Active Continental Margins | |
| |
| |
| Submarine Canyons and Turbidity Currents | |
| |
| |
| Features of the Deep Ocean Basin | |
| |
| |
| Deep-Ocean Trenches | |
| |
| |
| Abyssal Plains | |
| |
| |
| Seamounts | |
| |
| |
| Mid-Ocean Ridges | |
| |
| |
| Coral Reefs and Atolls | |
| |
| |
| Seafloor Sediments | |
| |
| |
| Terrigenous Sediment | |
| |
| |
| Biogenous Sediment | |
| |
| |
| Hydrogenous Sediment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Drilling Deep Into the Ocean Floor | |
| |
| |
| |
| Seafloor Sediments and Climate Change | |
| |
| |
| |
| Earthquakes and Earth's Interior | |
| |
| |
| What Is an Earthquake? | |
| |
| |
| Earthquakes and Faults | |
| |
| |
| Elastic Rebound | |
| |
| |
| Earthquakes Along the San Andreas | |
| |
| |
| Foreshocks and Aftershocks | |
| |
| |
| Tectonic Forces and Earthquakes | |
| |
| |
| Earthquake Waves | |
| |
| |
| Finding Earthquake Epicenters | |
| |
| |
| Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude | |
| |
| |
| Destruction from Earthquakes | |
| |
| |
| Destruction from Seismic Vibrations | |
| |
| |
| Tsunami | |
| |
| |
| Landslides and Ground Subsidence | |
| |
| |
| Fire | |
| |
| |
| Can Earthquakes Be Predicted? | |
| |
| |
| Short-Range Predictions | |
| |
| |
| Long-Range Forecasts | |
| |
| |
| Earthquakes and Earth's Interior | |
| |
| |
| Discovering Earth's Major Layers | |
| |
| |
| Discovering Earth's Composition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Damaging Earthquakes East of the Rockies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Plate Tectonics | |
| |
| |
| Continental Drift: An Idea Before Its Time | |
| |
| |
| Evidence: The Continental Jigsaw Puzzle | |
| |
| |
| Evidence: Fossils Match Across the Seas | |
| |
| |
| Evidence: Rock Types and Structures Match | |
| |
| |
| Evidence: Ancient Climates | |
| |
| |
| The Great Debate | |
| |
| |
| Plate Tectonics: A Modern Version of an Old Idea | |
| |
| |
| Plate Boundaries | |
| |
| |
| Divergent Boundaries | |
| |
| |
| Convergent Boundaries | |
| |
| |
| Transform Fault Boundaries | |
| |
| |
| Testing the Plate Tectonics Model | |
| |
| |
| Evidence: Paleomagnetism | |
| |
| |
| Magnetic Reversals and Seafloor Spreading | |
| |
| |
| Evidence: Earthquake Patterns | |
| |
| |
| Evidence: Ocean Drilling | |
| |
| |
| Evidence: Hot Spots | |
| |
| |
| Pangaea: Before and After | |
| |
| |
| Breakup of Pangaea | |
| |
| |
| Before Panagea | |
| |
| |
| The Driving Mechanism | |
| |
| |
| Convection Current Hypothesis | |
| |
| |
| Slab-Push and Slab-Pull Hypotheses | |
| |
| |
| Hot Plumes Hypothesis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Plate Tectonics Into the Future | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mountain Building | |
| |
| |
| Crustal Uplift | |
| |
| |
| Isostasy | |
| |
| |
| Isostatic Adjustment | |
| |
| |
| Rock Deformation | |
| |
| |
| Types of Deformation | |
| |
| |
| Folds | |
| |
| |
| Faults | |
| |
| |
| Joints | |
| |
| |
| Mountain Types | |
| |
| |
| Fault-Block Mountains | |
| |
| |
| Upwarped Mountains | |
| |
| |
| Folded Mountains | |
| |
| |
| Mountain Building | |
| |
| |
| Mountain Building at Convergent Boundaries | |
| |
| |
| Mountain Building and Continental Accretion | |
| |
| |
| |
| The San Andreas Fault System | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Rocky Mountains | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geologic Time | |
| |
| |
| Geology Needs a Time Scale | |
| |
| |
| Relative Dating--Key Principles | |
| |
| |
| Law of Superposition | |
| |
| |
| Principle of Original Horizontality | |
| |
| |
| Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships | |
| |
| |
| Inclusions | |
| |
| |
| Unconformities | |
| |
| |
| Using Relative Dating Principles | |
| |
| |
| Correlation of Rock Layers | |
| |
| |
| Fossils: Evidence of Past Life | |
| |
| |
| Types of Fossils | |
| |
| |
| Conditions Favoring Preservation | |
| |
| |
| Fossils and Correlation | |
| |
| |
| Dating with Radioactivity | |
| |
| |
| Radioactivity | |
| |
| |
| Half-Life | |
| |
| |
| Radiometric Dating | |
| |
| |
| Dating With Carbon-14 | |
| |
| |
| Importance of Radiometric Dating | |
| |
| |
| The Geologic Time Scale | |
| |
| |
| Structure of the Time Scale | |
| |
| |
| Precambrian Time | |
| |
| |
| Difficulties in Dating the Geologic Time Scale | |
| |
| |
| |
| Radon | |
| |
| |
| |
| Earth History: A Brief Summary | |
| |
| |
| Origin of Earth | |
| |
| |
| Earth's Atmosphere Evolves | |
| |
| |
| Precambrian Time: Vast and Enigmatic | |
| |
| |
| Precambrian Rocks | |
| |
| |
| Precambrian Fossils | |
| |
| |
| Paleozoic Era: Life Explodes | |
| |
| |
| Early Paleozoic History | |
| |
| |
| Early Paleozoic Life | |
| |
| |
| Late Paleozoic History | |
| |
| |
| Late Paleozoic Life | |
| |
| |
| Mesozoic Era: Age of the Dinosaurs | |
| |
| |
| Mesozoic History | |
| |
| |
| Mesozoic Life | |
| |
| |
| Cenozoic Era: Age of Mammals | |
| |
| |
| Cenozoic North America | |
| |
| |
| Cenozoic Life | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Great Paleozoic Extinction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Demise of the Dinosaurs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Metric and English Units Compared | |
| |
| |
| |
| Periodic Table of the Elements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mineral Identification Key | |
| |
| |
| |
| Topographic Maps | |
| |
| |
| Glossary | |
| |
| |
| Index | |