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| Outline, scope, and rationale of the book | |
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| Preface | |
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| Natural fluid dynamics | |
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| Rotating fluid dynamics: GFD Lab 0 | |
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| Holicism | |
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| Characteristics of the atmosphere | |
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| Geometry | |
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| Chemical composition of the atmosphere | |
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| Physical properties of air | |
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| Dry air | |
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| Moist air | |
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| GFD Lab I: Cloud formation on adiabatic expansion | |
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| Problems | |
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| The global energy balance | |
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| Planetary emission temperature | |
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| The atmospheric absorption spectrum | |
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| The greenhouse effect | |
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| A simple greenhouse model | |
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| A leaky greenhouse | |
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| A more opaque greenhouse | |
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| Climate feedbacks | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Problems | |
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| The vertical structure of the atmosphere | |
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| Vertical distribution of temperature and greenhouse gases | |
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| Typical temperature profile | |
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| Atmospheric layers | |
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| The relationship between pressure and density: hydrostatic balance | |
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| Vertical structure of pressure and density | |
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| Isothermal atmosphere | |
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| Non-isothermal atmosphere | |
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| Density | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Problems | |
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| Convection | |
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| The nature of convection | |
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| Convection in a shallow fluid | |
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| Instability | |
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| Convection in water | |
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| Buoyancy | |
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| Stability | |
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| Energetics | |
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| GFD Lab II: Convection | |
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| Dry convection in a compressible atmosphere | |
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| The adiabatic lapse rate (in unsaturated air) | |
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| Potential temperature | |
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| The atmosphere under stable conditions | |
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| Gravity waves | |
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| Temperature inversions | |
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| Moist convection | |
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| Humidity | |
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| Saturated adiabatic lapse rate | |
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| Equivalent potential temperature | |
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| Convection in the atmosphere | |
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| Types of convection | |
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| Where does convection occur? | |
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| Radiative-convective equilibrium | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Problems | |
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| The meridional structure of the atmosphere | |
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| Radiative forcing and temperature | |
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| Incoming radiation | |
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| Outgoing radiation | |
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| The energy balance of the atmosphere | |
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| Meridional structure of temperature | |
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| Pressure and geopotential height | |
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| Moisture | |
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| Winds | |
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| Distribution of winds | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Problems | |
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| The equations of fluid motion | |
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| Differentiation following the motion | |
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| Equation of motion for a nonrotating fluid | |
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| Forces on a fluid parcel | |
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| The equations of motion | |
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| Hydrostatic balance | |
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| Conservation of mass | |
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| Incompressible flow | |
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| Compressible flow | |
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| Thermodynamic equation | |
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| Integration, boundary conditions, and restrictions in application | |
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| Equations of motion for a rotating fluid | |
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| GFD Lab III: Radial inflow | |
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| Transformation into rotating coordinates | |
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| The rotating equations of motion | |
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| GFD Labs IV and V: Experiments with Coriolis forces on a parabolic rotating table | |
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| Putting things on the sphere | |
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| GFD Lab VI: An experiment on the Earth's rotation | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Problems | |
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| Balanced flow | |
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| Geostrophic motion | |
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| The geostrophic wind in pressure coordinates | |
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| Highs and lows; synoptic charts | |
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| Balanced flow in the radial-inflow experiment | |
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| The Taylor-Proudman theorem | |
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| GFD Lab VII: Taylor columns | |
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| The thermal wind equation | |
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| GFD Lab VIII: The thermal wind relation | |
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| The thermal wind equation and the Taylor-Proudman theorem | |
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| GFD Lab IX: cylinder "collapse" under gravity and rotation | |
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| Mutual adjustment of velocity and pressure | |
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| Thermal wind in pressure coordinates | |
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| Sub geostrophic flow: the Ekman layer | |
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| GFD Lab X: Ekman layers: frictionally-induced cross-isobaric flow | |
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| Ageostrophic flow in atmospheric highs and lows | |
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| Planetary-scale ageostrophic flow | |
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| Problems | |
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| The general circulation of the atmosphere | |
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| Understanding the observed circulation | |
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| A mechanistic view of the circulation | |
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| The tropical Hadley circulation | |
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| The extratropical circulation and GFD Lab XI: Baroclinic instability | |
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| Energetics of the thermal wind equation | |
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| Potential energy for a fluid system | |
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| Available potential energy | |
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| Release of available potential energy in baroclinic instability | |
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| Energetics in a compressible atmosphere | |
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| Large-scale atmospheric energy and momentum budget | |
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| Energy transport | |
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| Momentum transport | |
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| Latitudinal variations of climate | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Problems | |
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| The ocean and its circulation | |
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| Physical characteristics of the ocean | |
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| The ocean basins | |
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| The cryosphere | |
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| Properties of seawater; equation of state | |
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| Temperature, salinity, and temperature structure | |
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| The mixed layer and thermocline | |
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| The observed mean circulation | |
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| Inferences from geostrophic and hydrostatic balance | |
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| Ocean surface structure and geostrophic flow | |
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| Geostrophic flow at depth | |
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| Steric effects | |
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| The dynamic method | |
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| Ocean eddies | |
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| Observations of ocean eddies | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Problems | |
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| The wind-driven circulation | |
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| The wind stress and Ekman layers | |
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| Balance of forces and transport in the Ekman layer | |
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| Ekman pumping and suction and GFD Lab XII | |
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| Ekman pumping and suction induced by large-scale wind patterns | |
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| Response of the interior ocean to Ekman pumping | |
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| Interior balances | |
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| Wind-driven gyres and western boundary currents | |
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| Taylor-Proudman on the sphere | |
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| GFD Lab XIII: Wind-driven ocean gyres | |
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| The depth-integrated circulation: Sverdrup theory | |
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| Rationalization of position, sense of circulation, and volume transport of ocean gyres | |
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| Effects of stratification and topography | |
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| Taylor-Proudman in a layered ocean | |
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| Baroclinic instability in the ocean | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Problems | |
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| The thermohaline circulation of the ocean | |
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| Air-sea fluxes and surface property distributions | |
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| Heat, freshwater, and buoyancy fluxes | |
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| Interpretation of surface temperature distributions | |
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| Sites of deep convection | |
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| The observed thermohaline circulation | |
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| Inferences from interior tracer distributions | |
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| Time scales and intensity of thermohaline circulation | |
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| Dynamical models of the thermohaline circulation | |
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| Abyssal circulation schematic deduced from Taylor-Proudman on the sphere | |
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| GFD Lab XIV: The abyssal circulation | |
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| Why western boundary currents? | |
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| GFD Lab XV: Source sink flow in a rotating basin | |
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| Observations of abyssal ocean circulation | |
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| The ocean heat budget and transport | |
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| Meridional heat transport | |
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| Mechanisms of ocean heat transport and the partition of heat transport between the atmosphere and ocean | |
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| Freshwater transport by the ocean | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Problems | |
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| Climate and climate variability | |
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| The ocean as a buffer of temperature change | |
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| Nonseasonal changes in SST | |
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| El Nino and the Southern Oscillation | |
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| Interannual variability | |
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| "Normal" conditions-equatorial upwelling and the Walker circulation | |
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| ENSO | |
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| Other modes of variability | |
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| Paleoclimate | |
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| Climate over Earth history | |
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| Paleotemperatures over the past 70 million years: the [delta superscript 18] record | |
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| Greenhouse climates | |
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| Cold climates | |
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| Glacial-interglacial cycles | |
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| Global warming | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Problems | |
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| Appendices | |
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| Derivations | |
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| The Planck function | |
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| Computation of available potential energy | |
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| Internal energy for a compressible atmosphere | |
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| Mathematical definitions and notation | |
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| Taylor expansion | |
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| Vector identifies | |
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| Polar and spherical coordinates | |
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| Use of foraminifera shells in paleoclimate | |
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| Laboratory experiments | |
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| Rotating tables | |
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| List of laboratory experiments | |
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| Figures and access to data over the web | |
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| References | |
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| Textbooks and reviews | |
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| Other references | |
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| References to paleo-data sources | |
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| Index | |