| |
| |
Preface | |
| |
| |
| |
Groundwater: the Big Picture | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Global Water Reservoirs and Fluxes | |
| |
| |
| |
Terminology for Subsurface Waters | |
| |
| |
| |
Fluxes Affecting Groundwater | |
| |
| |
| |
Infiltration and Recharge | |
| |
| |
| |
Evapotranspiration | |
| |
| |
| |
Groundwater Discharge to Surface Water Bodies | |
| |
| |
| |
Pumping | |
| |
| |
| |
Hydrologic Balance | |
| |
| |
| |
Water and Groundwater Use | |
| |
| |
| |
What Groundwater Scientists Do | |
| |
| |
| |
Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
Physical Properties | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Properties of Water | |
| |
| |
| |
Density and Compressibility | |
| |
| |
| |
Viscosity | |
| |
| |
| |
Surface Tension and Capillarity | |
| |
| |
| |
Properties of Air | |
| |
| |
| |
Properties of Porous Media | |
| |
| |
| |
Porosity | |
| |
| |
| |
Grain Size | |
| |
| |
| |
Volumetric Water Content and Bulk Density | |
| |
| |
| |
Energy and Hydraulic Head | |
| |
| |
| |
Hydrostatics | |
| |
| |
| |
Measuring Hydraulic Head with Wells and Piezometers | |
| |
| |
| |
Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
Principles of Flow | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Darcy's Law and Hydraulic Conductivity | |
| |
| |
| |
Specific Discharge and Average Linear Velocity | |
| |
| |
| |
Darcy's Law in Three Dimensions | |
| |
| |
| |
Intrinsic Permeability and Conductivity of Other Fluids | |
| |
| |
| |
Limits on the Application of Darcy's Law | |
| |
| |
| |
The Continuum Assumption | |
| |
| |
| |
Laminar and Turbulent Flow | |
| |
| |
| |
Heterogeneity and Anisotropy of Hydraulic Conductivity | |
| |
| |
| |
Estimating Average Hydraulic Conductivities | |
| |
| |
| |
Transmissivity | |
| |
| |
| |
Measuring Hydraulic Conductivity | |
| |
| |
| |
Correlations of Grain Size to Hydraulic Conductivity | |
| |
| |
| |
Laboratory Hydraulic Conductivity Tests | |
| |
| |
| |
Slug Tests | |
| |
| |
| |
Pumping Tests | |
| |
| |
| |
Tracer Tests | |
| |
| |
| |
Modeling Natural Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
Flow in Fractured Rock | |
| |
| |
| |
Unsaturated Flow | |
| |
| |
| |
Water Content and Pressure | |
| |
| |
| |
Measuring Pressures below Atmospheric | |
| |
| |
| |
Water Content, Hydraulic Conductivity, and Darcy's Law | |
| |
| |
| |
Flow of Groundwater with Variable Density | |
| |
| |
| |
Fresh-Salt Water Interfaces in Coastal Aquifers | |
| |
| |
| |
Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
Geology and Groundwater Flow | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Exploring the Subsurface | |
| |
| |
| |
Excavation | |
| |
| |
| |
Direct-Push Probes | |
| |
| |
| |
Drilling | |
| |
| |
| |
Well Construction | |
| |
| |
| |
Resistivity, Electromagnetic, and Radar Surveys | |
| |
| |
| |
Seismic Refraction Surveys | |
| |
| |
| |
Borehole Logging | |
| |
| |
| |
General Patterns of Groundwater Flow | |
| |
| |
| |
Aquifers and Confining Layers | |
| |
| |
| |
Recharge and Discharge | |
| |
| |
| |
Water Table and Potentiometric Surface Maps | |
| |
| |
| |
Interaction of Groundwater and Surface Water | |
| |
| |
| |
Crustal-Scale Pore Fluid Flow | |
| |
| |
| |
Groundwater in Unconsolidated Deposits | |
| |
| |
| |
The High Plains Aquifer | |
| |
| |
| |
New Jersey Coastal Plain | |
| |
| |
| |
Western Cape Cod Glacial Deposits | |
| |
| |
| |
Groundwater in Sedimentary Rocks | |
| |
| |
| |
The Dakota Sandstone Aquifer | |
| |
| |
| |
Karst at Mammoth Cave, Kentucky | |
| |
| |
| |
Groundwater in Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks | |
| |
| |
| |
Columbia Plateau Basalts, Northwest U.S. | |
| |
| |
| |
Frozen Ground and Permafrost | |
| |
| |
| |
Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
Deformation, Storage, and General Flow Equations | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Effective Stress | |
| |
| |
| |
Atmospheric Pressure Fluctuations | |
| |
| |
| |
Excavation Instability and Liquefaction | |
| |
| |
| |
Slope Instability | |
| |
| |
| |
Vaiont Reservoir Slide | |
| |
| |
| |
Earthquakes and Groundwater Pressures | |
| |
| |
| |
Matrix Compression | |
| |
| |
| |
Subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley | |
| |
| |
| |
Consolidation: Time-Dependent Compression | |
| |
| |
| |
Pore Water Pressures in Sedimentary Basins | |
| |
| |
| |
Changes in Subsurface Water Storage | |
| |
| |
| |
Elastic Storage | |
| |
| |
| |
Water Table Storage | |
| |
| |
| |
General Flow Equations | |
| |
| |
| |
Three-Dimensional Saturated Flow | |
| |
| |
| |
Two-Dimensional Saturated Flow in Aquifers | |
| |
| |
| |
Three-Dimensional Unsaturated Flow | |
| |
| |
| |
Overview of Mathematical Modeling | |
| |
| |
| |
Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
Modeling Steady Flow with Basic Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Aquifers with Uniform Transmissivity | |
| |
| |
| |
Solution for Uniform Flow | |
| |
| |
| |
Solution for Radial Flow to a Well | |
| |
| |
| |
Solution for Uniform Recharge/Leakage | |
| |
| |
| |
Estimating the Recharge/Transmissivity Ratio | |
| |
| |
| |
Superposition | |
| |
| |
| |
Capture Zone of a Well in Uniform Flow | |
| |
| |
| |
Wells Near Straight Constant Head Boundaries | |
| |
| |
| |
Wells Near Straight Impermeable Boundaries | |
| |
| |
| |
Wells Near Circular Constant Head Boundaries | |
| |
| |
| |
Analyzing the Long-Term Drawdown of Wells | |
| |
| |
| |
Vertical Plane Flow | |
| |
| |
| |
Flow Net Graphical Solutions | |
| |
| |
| |
Boundary Conditions | |
| |
| |
| |
Discharges | |
| |
| |
| |
How to Draw Flow Nets | |
| |
| |
| |
Anisotropic Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
Deciding Whether to Use a One-, Two-, or Three-Dimensional Model | |
| |
| |
| |
Unconfined Aquifers with a Horizontal Base | |
| |
| |
| |
Solutions for Uniform Flow, Radial Flow, and Uniform Recharge | |
| |
| |
| |
Superposition and Imaging | |
| |
| |
| |
Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
Modeling Transient Flow with Basic Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Radial Flow in Aquifers with Uniform Transmissivity | |
| |
| |
| |
The Theis Nonleaky Aquifer Solution | |
| |
| |
| |
The Hantush-Jacob Solution for a Leaky Aquifer | |
| |
| |
| |
The Neuman Solution for an Unconfined Aquifer | |
| |
| |
| |
Pumping Test Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
Log-Log Curve Matching | |
| |
| |
| |
Semi-Log Drawdown vs. Time | |
| |
| |
| |
Pseudo-Steady Drawdown vs. Distance | |
| |
| |
| |
Constant-Drawdown Variable Discharge Test | |
| |
| |
| |
Additional Considerations for Pumping Tests | |
| |
| |
| |
Superposition in Space--Multiple Wells and Aquifer Boundaries | |
| |
| |
| |
Superposition in Time--Variable Pumping Rates at a Well | |
| |
| |
| |
Partial Penetration and Hydraulics Near the Pumping Well | |
| |
| |
| |
Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
Computer-Assisted Flow Modeling | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Finite Difference Method | |
| |
| |
| |
Finite Difference Equations | |
| |
| |
| |
Boundary Conditions | |
| |
| |
| |
Example Application | |
| |
| |
| |
Finite Element Method | |
| |
| |
| |
Finite Element Equations | |
| |
| |
| |
Boundary Conditions | |
| |
| |
| |
Analytic Element Method | |
| |
| |
| |
Equations for Two-Dimensional Aquifer Flow | |
| |
| |
| |
Common Elements | |
| |
| |
| |
Example Application | |
| |
| |
| |
Strengths and Limitations of These Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
Model Calibration and Parameter Estimation | |
| |
| |
| |
Interpreting Model Results | |
| |
| |
| |
Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
Groundwater Chemistry | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Molecular Properties of Water | |
| |
| |
| |
Solute Concentration Units | |
| |
| |
| |
Natural Solutes | |
| |
| |
| |
Inorganic Solutes | |
| |
| |
| |
Electroneutrality | |
| |
| |
| |
Presenting Inorganic Data Graphically | |
| |
| |
| |
Organic Solutes | |
| |
| |
| |
Chemical Reactions | |
| |
| |
| |
Equilibrium | |
| |
| |
| |
Activity and Effective Concentration | |
| |
| |
| |
Reaction Rates and Deviation from Equilibrium | |
| |
| |
| |
Mineral Dissolution and Precipitation | |
| |
| |
| |
Gas-Water Partitioning | |
| |
| |
| |
Aqueous-Phase Reactions | |
| |
| |
| |
pH, Acids, and Bases | |
| |
| |
| |
Carbonate Reactions and Alkalinity | |
| |
| |
| |
Metal Complexes | |
| |
| |
| |
Oxidation and Reduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Biogeochemical Redox Reactions | |
| |
| |
| |
Sorption | |
| |
| |
| |
Surface Complexation of Ions | |
| |
| |
| |
Nonpolar Organic Compounds | |
| |
| |
| |
Isotopes | |
| |
| |
| |
Stable Isotopes and Water Origins | |
| |
| |
| |
Radioisotopes and Age Dating | |
| |
| |
| |
Groundwater Records of Paleoclimate | |
| |
| |
| |
Examples of Natural Groundwater Chemistry Processes | |
| |
| |
| |
Floridan Aquifer: Regional Scale | |
| |
| |
| |
Floridan Aquifer: Local Scale | |
| |
| |
| |
Milk River Aquifer | |
| |
| |
| |
Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
Groundwater Contamination | |
| |
| |
| |
Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
Contamination Sources | |
| |
| |
| |
Leaking Storage Tanks | |
| |
| |
| |
Septic Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
Landfills | |
| |
| |
| |
Others | |
| |
| |
| |
Organic Contaminants | |
| |
| |
| |
Overview of Migration Patterns | |
| |
| |
| |
Structure and Occurrence of Common Contaminants | |
| |
| |
| |
Properties of Common Contaminants | |
| |
| |
| |
Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids | |
| |
| |
| |
Saturation, and Wetting and Nonwetting Fluids | |
| |
| |
| |
Interfacial Tension and Capillary Pressure | |
| |
| |
| |
Capillary Pressure vs. Saturation and Residual Saturation | |
| |
| |
| |
Relative Permeability and Flow of Multiple Phases | |
| |
| |
| |
Solute Transport Processes | |
| |
| |
| |
Advection and Mechanical Dispersion | |
| |
| |
| |
Molecular Diffusion | |
| |
| |
| |
Sorption | |
| |
| |
| |
Colloid Transport | |
| |
| |
| |
Case Studies of Solute Transport | |
| |
| |
| |
CFB Borden, Ontario Tracer Test | |
| |
| |
| |
North Carolina Gasoline and Diesel Spill | |
| |
| |
| |
Modeling Solute Transport | |
| |
| |
| |
Modeling Dispersion and Diffusion | |
| |
| |
| |
General Equations for Nonreactive Solutes | |
| |
| |
| |
General Equations for Reactive Solutes | |
| |
| |
| |
Boundary Conditions | |
| |
| |
| |
One-Dimensional Solution for a Step Inlet Source | |
| |
| |
| |
Solution for a Pulse Point Source | |
| |
| |
| |
Other More Complex Solutions | |
| |
| |
| |
Investigating Contamination | |
| |
| |
| |
Sampling Groundwater | |
| |
| |
| |
Sampling Pore Gases | |
| |
| |
| |
Electromagnetic Surveys | |
| |
| |
| |
Investigating NAPLs | |
| |
| |
| |
Remediating Contamination | |
| |
| |
| |
Source Removal or Isolation | |
| |
| |
| |
NAPL Recovery | |
| |
| |
| |
Hydraulic Control of Solute Plumes | |
| |
| |
| |
Soil Vapor Extraction | |
| |
| |
| |
Bioremediation | |
| |
| |
| |
Engineered In Situ Reaction Zones | |
| |
| |
| |
Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
Units and Conversions | |
| |
| |
| |
Length [L] | |
| |
| |
| |
Area [L[superscript 2] | |
| |
| |
| |
Volume [L[superscript 3] | |
| |
| |
| |
Time [T] | |
| |
| |
| |
Mass [M] and Weight [ML/T[superscript 2] at Earth's Surface | |
| |
| |
| |
Force [ML/T[superscript 2] | |
| |
| |
| |
Pressure or Stress [M/LT[superscript 2] | |
| |
| |
| |
Energy [ML[superscript 2]/T[superscript 2] | |
| |
| |
| |
Power [ML[superscript 2]/T[superscript 3] | |
| |
| |
| |
Angle | |
| |
| |
| |
Temperature | |
| |
| |
| |
Velocity and Hydraulic Conductivity [L/T] | |
| |
| |
| |
Transmissivity [L[superscript 2]/T] | |
| |
| |
| |
Discharge (Flow Rate) [L[superscript 3]/T] | |
| |
| |
| |
Unit Prefixes | |
| |
| |
| |
Performing Unit Conversions | |
| |
| |
| |
Mathematics Primer | |
| |
| |
| |
Algebra and Geometry | |
| |
| |
| |
Functions of One Variable | |
| |
| |
| |
Formulas for Common Derivatives | |
| |
| |
| |
Functions of Two or More Variables | |
| |
| |
| |
Book Internet Site | |
| |
| |
Answers to Selected Problems | |
| |
| |
References | |
| |
| |
Index | |