| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Neutral Gases and Plasmas | |
| |
| |
| |
| Plasmas in Space | |
| |
| |
| |
| A Brief History of Space Research | |
| |
| |
| Exercises and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Charged Particles in Electromagnetic Fields | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electromagnetic Fields | |
| |
| |
| |
| Maxwell's Equations in Vacuum | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transformation of Field Equations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Generalized Ohm's Law | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energy Equation of the Electromagnetic Field | |
| |
| |
| |
| Particle Motion in Electromagnetic Fields | |
| |
| |
| |
| Lorentz Force and Gyration | |
| |
| |
| |
| Drifts of Particles in Electromagnetic Fields | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Concept of the Guiding Center | |
| |
| |
| |
| Crossed Magnetic and Electric Fields: Ex B Drift | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetic and Gravitational Fields | |
| |
| |
| |
| Inhomogeneous Magnetic Fields | |
| |
| |
| |
| Curvature Drift | |
| |
| |
| |
| Drifts Combined with Changes in Particle Energy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Drift Currents in Plasmas | |
| |
| |
| |
| Adiabatic Invariants | |
| |
| |
| |
| First Adiabatic Invariant: The Magnetic Moment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetic Mirrors and Bottles | |
| |
| |
| |
| Second Adiabatic Invariant: Longitudinal Invariant | |
| |
| |
| |
| Third Adiabatic Invariant: Flux Invariant | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Exercises and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetohydrodynamics | |
| |
| |
| |
| From Hydrodynamics to Magnetohydrodynamics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Partial and Convective Derivatives | |
| |
| |
| |
| Equation of Motion or Momentum Balance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Equation of Continuity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Equation of State | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic Equations of MHD | |
| |
| |
| |
| Two-Fluid Description | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetohydrostatics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetic Pressure | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetic Tension | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetohydrokinematics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Frozen-in Magnetic Fields | |
| |
| |
| |
| Deformation and Dissipation of Fields | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reconnection | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Magnetohydrodynamic Dynamo | |
| |
| |
| |
| Debye Shielding | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Exercises and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Plasma Waves | |
| |
| |
| |
| What is a Wave? | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetohydrodynamic Waves | |
| |
| |
| |
| Linearization of the Equations: Perturbation Theory. | |
| |
| |
| |
| Alfven Waves | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magneto-Sonic Waves | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electrostatic Waves in Non-Magnetic Plasmas | |
| |
| |
| |
| Plasma Oscillations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electron Plasma Waves (Langmuir Waves) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ion-Acoustic Waves (Ion Waves) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electrostatic Waves in Magnetized Plasmas | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electron Oscillations Perpendicular to B (Upper Hybrid Frequency) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electrostatic Ion Waves Perpendicular to B (Ion Cyclotron Waves) | |
| |
| |
| |
| pLower Hybrid Frequency | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electromagnetic Waves in Non-Magnetized Plasmas | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electromagnetic Waves in Magnetized Plasmas | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electromagnetic Waves Perpendicular to BQ | |
| |
| |
| |
| Waves Parallel to the Magnetic Field: Whistler (R-Waves) and L-Waves | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Exercises and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Kinetic Theory | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Distribution Function | |
| |
| |
| |
| Phase Space and Distribution Function | |
| |
| |
| |
| Maxwell's Velocity Distribution | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other Distributions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Distribution Function and Measured Quantities | |
| |
| |
| |
| Equations of Kinetic Theory | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Boltzmann Equation | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Vlasov Equation | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Fokker-Planck Equation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Collisions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Collisions Between Neutrals | |
| |
| |
| |
| Collisions Between Charged Particles | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Exercises and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sun and Solar Wind: Plasmas in the Heliosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Sun | |
| |
| |
| |
| Nuclear Fusion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Structure of the Sun | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Solar Atmosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Coronal Magnetic Field | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Solar Wind | |
| |
| |
| |
| Properties | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solar Wind Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coronal Heating and Solar Wind Acceleration | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spiral Structure | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sector Structure | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Ballerina Model | |
| |
| |
| |
| Corotating Interaction Regions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Plasma Waves in Interplanetary Space | |
| |
| |
| |
| Power-Density Spectrum | |
| |
| |
| |
| Waves or Turbulence? | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Three-Dimensional Heliosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Active Sun | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Solar Cycle | |
| |
| |
| |
| A Simple Model of the Solar Cycle | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Heliosphere During the Solar Cycle | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flares and Coronal Mass Ejections | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electromagnetic Radiation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Classes of Flares | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coronal Mass Ejections | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coronal Mass Ejections, Flares, and Coronal Shocks | |
| |
| |
| |
| Models of Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Models of Flares | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetic Clouds: CMEs in Interplanetary Space | |
| |
| |
| |
| Interplanetary Shocks | |
| |
| |
| |
| Shock | |
| |
| |
| |
| Information, Dissipation, and Non-Linearity | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Shock's Rest Frame | |
| |
| |
| |
| Collisionless Shock Waves | |
| |
| |
| |
| Shock Conservation Laws | |
| |
| |
| |
| Jump Conditions and Discontinuities | |
| |
| |
| |
| Shock Geometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fast and Slow Shocks | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Coplanarity Theorem | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Shock Normal Direction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Exercises and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energetic Particles in the Heliosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| Particle Populations in the Heliosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solar Energetic Particles and Classes of Flares | |
| |
| |
| |
| Interplanetary Transport - Theoretical Background | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spatial Diffusion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pitch Angle Diffusion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diffusion in Momentum Space | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wave-Particle Interactions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electromagnetic Waves | |
| |
| |
| |
| Transport Equations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Interplanetary Propagation - Observations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fits with a Transport Equation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analysis of Magnetic Field Fluctuations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparison Between Both Approaches | |
| |
| |
| |
| Particle Acceleration at Shocks - Theory | |
| |
| |
| |
| Shock Drift Acceleration (SDA) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diffusive Shock Acceleration | |
| |
| |
| |
| Diffusive Shock Acceleration and Self-Generated Turbulence | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stochastic Acceleration | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Shock as a Non-Linear System | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary Shock Acceleration | |
| |
| |
| |
| Particles at Shocks in Interplanetary Space | |
| |
| |
| |
| Low-Energy Particles (Tens of keV) at Traveling Shocks | |
| |
| |
| |
| High-Energetic Particles (MeVs) at Traveling Shocks | |
| |
| |
| |
| Particles at Planetary Bow Shocks | |
| |
| |
| |
| Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCRs) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Variations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Modulation Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Exercises and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Terrestrial Magnetosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Geomagnetic Field | |
| |
| |
| |
| Description of the Geomagnetic Field | |
| |
| |
| |
| Variability of the Internal Field | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Terrestrial Dynamo | |
| |
| |
| |
| Topology of the Magnetosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Magnetopause | |
| |
| |
| |
| Polar Cusps | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Tail and the Polar Caps | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetosheath and Bow Shock | |
| |
| |
| |
| Plasmas and Currents in the Magnetosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Atmosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Ionosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetosphere-Ionosphere Coupling | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Plasmasphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Geosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Outer Magnetosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Open Magnetosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| Convection of Plasma Into the Magnetosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flux Transfer Events | |
| |
| |
| |
| Release of Accumulated Matter: Substorms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geomagnetic Disturbances | |
| |
| |
| |
| Daily Variations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geomagnetic Indices | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geomagnetic Pulsations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geomagnetic Storms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Geomagnetic Activity on Longer Time Scales | |
| |
| |
| |
| Aurorae | |
| |
| |
| |
| Historical Excursion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Beginning of the Scientific Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Modern Interpretation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electron Acceleration | |
| |
| |
| |
| Excitation of the Atmosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| Shape and Local Time | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energetic Particles in the Magnetosphere | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Radiation Belts | |
| |
| |
| |
| Galactic Cosmic Rays - St0rmer Orbits | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solar Energetic Particles - Polar Cap Absorption | |
| |
| |
| |
| Magnetospheric Modeling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Exercises and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Planetary Magnetospheres | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Planets | |
| |
| |
| |
| Planets with a Magnetic Field | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mercury | |
| |
| |
| |
| Jupiter | |
| |
| |
| |
| Saturn | |
| |
| |
| |
| Uranus | |
| |
| |
| |
| Neptune | |
| |
| |
| |
| Planets Without a Magnetic Field | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparison of Planetary Magnetospheres | |
| |
| |
| |
| Structures of Planetary Magnetospheres | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sizes | |
| |
| |
| |
| Plasma Sources | |
| |
| |
| |
| Upstream of the Bow Shock: The Foreshocks | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary | |
| |
| |
| Exercises and Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solar-Terrestrial Relationships | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solar-Terrestrial Relationships: Overview | |
| |
| |
| |
| Responses of the Upper Atmosphere to Solar Variability | |
| |
| |
| |
| Polar Cap Absorptions and Ozone | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermospheric Circulation | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Solar Cycle, Sector Boundaries, Droughts, and Thunderstorms | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solar Activity, Climate, and Culture | |
| |
| |
| |
| Sun and Weather | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cosmic Rays, Clouds, and Solar Cycle Length | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Technical Environment and Solar Activity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Instrumentation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Field Instruments | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Magnetic Field | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electric Field Measurements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Wave Measurements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Plasma Instruments | |
| |
| |
| |
| Instruments for Dense Plasmas | |
| |
| |
| |
| Instruments for Rarefied Plasmas | |
| |
| |
| |
| Energetic Particle Instruments | |
| |
| |
| |
| Supplementary Ground-Based Observations | |
| |
| |
| Appendix | |
| |
| |
| |
| List of Symbols | |
| |
| |
| |
| Useful Equations in the SI and cgs System | |
| |
| |
| |
| Useful Relations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Vector Calculus | |
| |
| |
| |
| Cylindrical Coordinates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Spherical Coordinates | |
| |
| |
| |
| Useful Numbers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fundamental Constants | |
| |
| |
| |
| Numbers in Plasmas | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Index | |