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Notes About the Updated Edition | |
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Robert Huber, 1909-1996: A Life of Influence and Integrity | |
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Why Use Argument to Influence Others? | |
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Argument Widely Used | |
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The Psychological Need for Good Argument | |
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Argument Defined | |
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Argument Is Only One Phase of Persuasion | |
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The Processes of Argument and the Processes of Reasoning | |
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Argument and Emotion | |
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The Study of Argument Versus the Study of Logic | |
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Growing Demands for Argument | |
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The Role of Argument | |
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In Advocacy | |
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In Propaganda | |
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In Education and Learning | |
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In Inquiries and Investigations | |
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In Discussion | |
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In Debate | |
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In Rhetorical Criticism | |
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Elements of the Study of Argument | |
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Exercises | |
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With What Kinds of Subjects Is Argument Effective? | |
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Propositions as Subjects for Argument | |
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Purpose of Speakers Using Argument | |
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Types of Propositions | |
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Fact | |
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Value | |
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Policy | |
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Testing Your Proposition | |
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Am I Interested or Can I Become in the Proposition? | |
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Will My Audience Wish to Hear Me Discuss the Topic? | |
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Is It Timely? | |
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Is It Suitable for the Occasion? | |
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Is It Narrow Enough to Be Covered Within the Time Limits? | |
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Is It Suitable for Oral Presentation? | |
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Is It Subject to Disagreement? | |
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Is It Clear Rather than Ambiguous? | |
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Is It Capable of Being Supported with Evidence? | |
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Is It Significant Enough to Be Worthy of Discussion? | |
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Is There a Basis for Comparison? | |
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Does the Proposition Involve a Single Subject? | |
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Wording the Proposition | |
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General Occasions | |
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Debates | |
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Public Discussions | |
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Exercises | |
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Analysis and Definition | |
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Analysis Defined | |
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Rules for Good Analysis | |
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Subdivide by One Principle | |
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Avoid Subdivisions that Overlap | |
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Uncover All the Parts | |
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No Subdivision Should Equal the Whole Subject | |
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Utilize a Significant Principle | |
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Be Sure that a Proper Interrelationship Among the Headings Is Present | |
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Discovering the Main Issues | |
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Definition of Main Issues | |
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Analysis for Uncovering Subissues | |
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Discovering Main Issues According to Type of Proposition | |
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Propositions of Fact | |
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Propositions of Value | |
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Propositions of Policy | |
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Stock Issues and Stock Ways of Dividing Subjects | |
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Chronological | |
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Spatial | |
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Topical | |
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Psychological | |
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Logical | |
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Definition | |
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Logical Definition | |
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Definition by Example | |
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Definition by Comparison | |
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Definition by Contrast | |
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Definition by Synonym | |
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Definition by Etymology or Origin | |
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Definition by Negation | |
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Definition by Enumeration or Division | |
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Definition by Authority | |
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Definition by History | |
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The Steps in Preliminary Analysis | |
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Complete or Continuing Analysis | |
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Analysis in Reading, Listening, Writing Essays, and Writing Examinations | |
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Reading | |
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Listening | |
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Writing Essays | |
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Writing Examinations | |
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Exercises | |
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Gathering Material for Building Arguments | |
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Necessity of an Organized System of Gathering Material | |
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Importance of Your Own Knowledge and Thinking | |
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Exchanging Opinions and Knowledge with Others | |
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Discussion | |
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Personal Interviews | |
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Letters and E-mail | |
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Observation | |
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Conducting Original Experiments and Research | |
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Using the Library | |
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Have a Research Plan | |
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Know What You Want to Find Out | |
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Develop Search Terms | |
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Add Additional Goals and Key Words as Your Search | |
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Progresses | |
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Utilize Library Resources | |
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Reference Materials | |
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Online Resources | |
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Periodicals | |
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Books | |
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Inter-Library Loan | |
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United States Government Documents | |
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Multimedia | |
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Consult a Librarian for Additional Assistance | |
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Internet Research | |
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Recording Your Data | |
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Exercises | |
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Influencing Through Evidence | |
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Definition of Evidence | |
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Types of Evidence | |
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Factual Examples | |
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Statistics | |
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Opinions of Authorities | |
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Testimony of Lay Witnesses | |
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Documents, Legal Papers, and the Like | |
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Arguments to Validate Evidence from Authorities | |
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The Authority Has Made a Study | |
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The Authority Was Trained in Research | |
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The Authority Is Free from Prejudice | |
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The Authority Is Free from Exaggeration | |
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The Authority Is Consistent | |
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Arguments to Invalidate or Refute Evidence from Authorities | |
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The Authority Quoted Did Not Make a Study | |
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The Authority Quoted Was Not Trained in Research | |
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The Authority Quoted Is Prejudiced | |
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The Authority Quoted Is Guilty of Exaggeration | |
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The Authority Quoted Is Guilty of Inconsistency | |
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Arguments to Validate and Invalidate Statistics | |
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Has the Unit of the Statistics Been Carefully Defined? | |
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Are the Statistical Units an Accurate Index of What We Want to Know? | |
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Are the Statistical Units Comparable in Terms of Size and Relevance? | |
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Do Other Studies of the Same Nature Verify These Facts? | |
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Tests of Ordinary Witnesses | |
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Did the Witness Have the Opportunity to Observe the Happening Directly? | |
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Was the Witness Physically Capable of Observing the Happening? | |
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Is the Witness Capable of Accurate Reporting? | |
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Is the Witness Free from Tendencies to Exaggerate? | |
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Is the Witness Free from Personal Involvement? | |
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Does the Testimony of the Witness Constitute an Admission? | |
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Can It Pass the "Hearsay" Tests? | |
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Tests for Documents and Legal Papers | |
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Exercises | |
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Influencing Through Induction | |
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Propositions with Which Induction Is Effective | |
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Induction Defined | |
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Characteristics of Induction | |
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The Use of Induction in Discovering or Verifying Knowledge | |
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Induction and the Sampling Process | |
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Induction and Public Opinion Polls | |
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Induction and the Case-Study Method | |
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Induction and Experimental Study | |
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Induction and the Empricial Method | |
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Induction and Universal Laws | |
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Lines of Argument to Validate or Invalidate Induction | |
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Are the Facts True? | |
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Are the Examples Universal or Isolate Instances? | |
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Do the Examples Cover a Sufficient Period of Time? | |
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Are the Examples Cited Typical or Atypical? | |
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Are There Significant Negative Instances? | |
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Is the Conclusion Properly Stated? | |
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The "What Harm?" or "So What?" Argument | |
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Exercises | |
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Influencing Through Deduction | |
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Propositions with Which Deduction Is Effective | |
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Deductive Reasoning Defined | |
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The Syllogism and Its Parts | |
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The Enthymeme | |
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Types of Deduction | |
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Categorical Deduction | |
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The True or Proved Major Premise Versus the False or Unproved | |
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The True or Proved Minor Premise Versus the False or Unproved | |
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Distribution Versus Lack of Distribution of Terms | |
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Four Terms, or the Fallacy of Equivocation | |
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Negative Premises | |
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Disjunctive Deduction | |
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Using Disjunctive Deduction Effectively | |
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Evaluating or Refuting Disjunctive Deduction | |
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Hypothetical Deduction | |
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Rules for Hypothetical Deduction | |
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Using Hypothetical Deduction Effectively | |
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Evaluating or Refuting Hypothetical Deduction | |
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Sorites | |
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Deduction in Argumentative Speeches | |
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Proposition of Fact | |
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Proposition of Value | |
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Proposition of Policy | |
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A Summary of Lines of Argument on Deduction | |
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Exercises | |
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Influencing Through Causal Reasoning | |
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Propositions with Which Causal Reasoning Is Effective | |
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Causal Reasoning Defined | |
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Types of Causal Reasoning | |
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Cause-to-Effect Reasoning | |
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Effect-to-Cause Reasoning | |
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Effect-to-Effect Reasoning | |
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Argument from Sign Reasoning | |
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Causal Lines of Argument | |
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Does the Alleged Cause Have the Means, Power, Facilities, and/or Desire to Produce the Effect? | |
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Is This the Sole Cause or Are There Other Causes? | |
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Is This Cause Significant or Insignificant? | |
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Is This an Original or Contributing Cause? | |
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Are There or Will There Be Counteracting Causes? | |
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Has Coincidence Been Mistaken for Causal Relationship? | |
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Summary of the Lines of Argument on Causal Reasoning | |
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Exercises | |
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Influencing Through Reasoning from Analogy | |
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Propositions with Which Reasoning from Analogy Is Effective | |
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Reasoning from Analogy Defined | |
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Relationship to Induction | |
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Relationship to Causal Reasoning | |
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Lines of Argument for Reasoning from Analogy | |
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Do the Similarities Outweigh the Differences? | |
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Do the Differences Outweigh the Similarities? | |
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Are the Similarities or Differences Significant or Insignificant? | |
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Summary of Lines of Argument by Analogy | |
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Summary of the Interrelationships of the Various Types of Reasoning | |
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Exercises | |
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Refutation: Blocking the Arguments of Others | |
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Definition | |
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Refutation by Challenging Analysis and Definition | |
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Refutation Through Minimizing | |
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Refutation by Denying the Evidence | |
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Refutation by Demonstrating the Opposite | |
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Refutation by Exposing Fallacies in Reasoning | |
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Refutation by Exposing Special Types of Fallacies | |
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Arguing in a Circle | |
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Assuming a More General Truth that Involves the Point at Issue | |
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The Fallacious Question | |
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Appeals to Prejudice (Argumentum ad Populum) | |
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Argument Involving Persons (Argumentum ad Hominem) | |
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Shifting Ground | |
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Argument from Tradition and Custom | |
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An Appeal to the Ignorance of the Opposite | |
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False Synthesis | |
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Fallacy of Division | |
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Fallacy of Equivocation | |
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Refutation by Special Methods | |
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Reducing the Argument to an Absurdity (Reductio ad Absurdum) | |
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Adopting Opposing Arguments (Turning the Tables) | |
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Method of Residues | |
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The Dilemma | |
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Exposing Inconsistencies | |
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Exposing Irrelevant Arguments | |
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Exercises | |
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Logic Is Not Enough: Use Other Sources of Persuasion, Too | |
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Constituent Elements in Persuasion: Logos, Pathos, Ethos, and Style | |
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This Chapter-A Suggested Outline for Further Study | |
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Pathos: Psychological or Emotional Appeals | |
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Capturing and Holding Attention | |
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Appeals to Basic Wants | |
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Appeals to Blocked Wants-The Hate Object | |
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Appeals to Symbols of Identification | |
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Appeals to Emotionally Loaded Words | |
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Appeals to Sentiments | |
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Associated-Attitude Appeal | |
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Appeals to Prejudice | |
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Other Factors in Pathos | |
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How to Use Emotional Appeals with Argumentative Speeches | |
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Appeals in Main Headings | |
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Use in the Development of Each Argument | |
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Emotional Appeals in the Conclusion | |
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Psychological Factors Within the Introduction | |
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Style: Making the Speech Pictorial, Vivid, Stirring | |
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Choosing Effective Words | |
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Image-Bearing Words | |
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Personal Pronouns and Other Personal Reference Words | |
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Action Verbs | |
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Simple Words | |
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Utilizing Effective Sentence Structure | |
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Simple Sentences Instead of Complex | |
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Periodic Sentences Instead of Loose | |
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Balanced Structure | |
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Parallel Structure | |
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"Grouping of Three" | |
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Utilizing Special Rhetorical Devices | |
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The Direct Question | |
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The Rhetorical Question | |
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Dialogue | |
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Figures of Speech | |
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Literary and Biblical Quotations | |
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The Allusion | |
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Comparison and Contrast | |
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The Long Illustration-Human Interest Story | |
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Repetition and Restatement | |
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Keeping the Speech Moving Toward a Goal | |
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Partition | |
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Forecast | |
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Summaries | |
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Conclusion | |
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Suspense and Climax | |
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Ethos: Persuasiveness of the Speaker | |
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The Power of Position and Reputation | |
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The Power of Personality | |
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Sincerity | |
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Congeniality | |
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Consideration and Kindness | |
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Sense of Humor and Proportion | |
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The Power of an Effective Voice | |
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Develop a Basically Pleasing Voice | |
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Develop an Interesting Voice | |
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The Power of Effective Use of the Body | |
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Constant Eye Contact | |
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Using Facial Expression | |
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Using Effective Head Gestures | |
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Using Effective Arm Gestures | |
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Every Gesture Has Three Parts | |
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Developing Good Posture | |
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Move to Enhance the Speech | |
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Enthusiastic Desire to Obtain a Response-Avoid Artificialities | |
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Exercises | |