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| Preface | |
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| The Background: Reason and Will | |
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| Ethics and Human Nature | |
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| The Importance of Our Question | |
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| Three Traditional Answers | |
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| The Greeks and the Idea of What Is Good | |
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| Human Goodness and Reason | |
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| Rationalism vs. Voluntarism | |
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| Moral Rationalism | |
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| Moral Voluntarism | |
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| Nature vs. Convention | |
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| True Morality | |
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| What Is and What Ought to Be | |
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| The Emergence of Ethics in Greek Philosophy | |
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| Nature vs. Convention | |
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| The Problem of Morality in Sophistic Philosophy | |
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| Thrasymachus and the Will of the Strong | |
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| Glaucon and Adiemantus | |
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| Polus and the Rewards of Injustice | |
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| The Issue Joined: True vs. Pragmatic Morality | |
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| The True Morality According to Callicles | |
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| Protagoras and the Doctrine of Pragmatis | |
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| Protagorean Ethics | |
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| The Socratic Questions | |
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| The Significance of Protagoras | |
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| Socratic Ethics | |
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| The Character of Socrates' Thought | |
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| Some Socratic Questions | |
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| Vulgar vs. Philosophical Virtue | |
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| The Involuntary Character of Wickedness | |
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| Virtue as Knowledge | |
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| What Power Is | |
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| Virtue and Happiness | |
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| Justice as a State of the Soul | |
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| Is Justice Good for Its Own Sake? | |
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| The Test | |
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| Is There a True or Natural Justice? | |
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| Hedonism, the Doctrine of Pleasure | |
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| Moral Empiricism | |
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| Empiricism and the Doctrine of Pleasure | |
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| Epicurean Empiricism | |
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| Pleasure as the Natural Good | |
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| The Problem of Ethics | |
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| The Cyrenaic Philosophy | |
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| The Epicurean Modifications | |
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| The Moderation of Desires | |
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| The Sources of Goodness | |
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| Justice and Duty | |
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| The Significance of Epicurus | |
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| A Modern Version of Hedonism | |
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| J. S. Mill's Hedonism | |
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| The Greatest Happiness Principle | |
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| Duty and Motive | |
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| The Quality of Pleasure | |
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| The Presuppositions of Hedonism | |
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| The Double Meanings of Pleasure and Pain | |
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| Pleasure and Happiness | |
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| Kantian Morality | |
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| The Background of Kantian Morality | |
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| The Basic Ideas of Conventional Morality | |
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| Laws | |
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| Justice | |
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| Kantian Morality | |
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| Duty and Law | |
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| The Good Will | |
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| The Categorical Imperative | |
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| Rational Nature as an End | |
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| The Significance of Kant | |
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| Good and Evil | |
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| Good and Evil | |
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| Conative Beings | |
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| Conation as the Precondition of Good and Evil | |
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| The Emergence of Good and Evil | |
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| The Emergence of Right and Wrong | |
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| Right and Wrong as Relative to Rules | |
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| The World as It Is | |
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| The Common Good | |
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| Conflicts of Aims | |
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| The Nature of the Common Good | |
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| The Moral Evaluation of Institutions | |
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| Some Fundamental Questions Revisited | |
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| Nature vs. Convention | |
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| Justice | |
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| Can Virtue Be Taught? | |
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| Two Shortcomings | |
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| Human Goodness | |
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| Casuistry | |
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| The Futility of Justifying Conduct | |
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| Samples of Casuistry | |
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| The Significance of These Examples | |
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| The Function of Principles | |
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| Judicial Casuistry | |
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| Moralists as Lawmakers | |
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| Judicial Decision by Persuasive Definition | |
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| Moral and Judicial Casuistry Compared | |
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| The Incentives of Action | |
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| The Incentive to Justice | |
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| The Incentive of Compassion | |
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| The Incentive of Malice | |
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| Egoism | |
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| The Moral Neutrality of Egoism | |
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| The Ugliness of Egoism | |
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| Four Possible Incentives | |
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| Self-Hatred as an Incentive | |
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| The Virtue of Compassion | |
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| Malice: The First Class of Actions | |
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| Compassion: The Second Class of Actions | |
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| The Significance of These Stories | |
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| The Scope of Compassion | |
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| Incentives and Consequences | |
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| Compassion and Justice | |
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| Love and Friendship | |
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| Varieties of Love and Friendship | |
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| Philia, or Friendship | |
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| Friendship in Aristotelian Ethics | |
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| Eros, or the Love of the Sexes | |
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| Absolute Love | |
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| Love and Aspiration | |
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| Possessive Love | |
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| Love as a Duty | |
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| Love as a Blessing | |
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| Moral Rules and Aspirations | |
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| Love as Aspiration | |
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| The Meaning of Life | |
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| Meaningless Existence | |
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| The Meaninglessness of Life | |
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| The Meaning of Life | |
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| Index | |