| |
| |
| Preface to the Fourth Edition | |
| |
| |
| Preface to the First Edition | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic Process | |
| |
| |
| |
| Scope of the Book | |
| |
| |
| |
| General Literature Survey | |
| |
| |
| |
| History of Polymer Extrusion | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Extrusion Machinery | |
| |
| |
| |
| Different Types of Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Single Screw Extruder | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic Operation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Vented Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Rubber Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Multiscrew Extruder | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Twin Screw Extruder | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Multiscrew Extruder with More Than Two Screws | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Gear Pump Extruder | |
| |
| |
| |
| Disk Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Viscous Drag Disk Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Elastic Melt Extruder | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview of Disk Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Ram Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Single Ram Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Multi Ram Extruder | |
| |
| |
| Appendix 2.1 | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Extruder Hardware | |
| |
| |
| |
| Extruder Drive | |
| |
| |
| |
| AC Motor Drive System | |
| |
| |
| |
| DC Motor Drive System | |
| |
| |
| |
| Hydraulic Drive System | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparison of Various Drive Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Reducer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Constant Torque Characteristics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thrust Bearing Assembly | |
| |
| |
| |
| Barrel and Feed Throat | |
| |
| |
| |
| Feed Hopper | |
| |
| |
| |
| Extruder Screw | |
| |
| |
| |
| Die Assembly | |
| |
| |
| |
| Screens and Screen Changers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Heating and Cooling Systems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Electric Heating | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fluid Heating | |
| |
| |
| |
| Extruder Cooling | |
| |
| |
| |
| Screw Heating and Cooling | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Instrumentation and Control | |
| |
| |
| |
| Instrumentation Requirements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Most Important Parameters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pressure Measurement | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Importance of Melt Pressure | |
| |
| |
| |
| Different Types of Pressure Transducers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mechanical Considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Specifications | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparisons of Different Transducers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Temperature Measurement | |
| |
| |
| |
| Methods of Temperature Measurement | |
| |
| |
| |
| Barrel Temperature Measurement | |
| |
| |
| |
| Stock Temperature Measurement | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other Measurements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Power Measurement | |
| |
| |
| |
| Rotational Speed | |
| |
| |
| |
| Extrudate Thickness | |
| |
| |
| |
| Extrudate Surface Conditions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Temperature Control | |
| |
| |
| |
| On-Off Control | |
| |
| |
| |
| Proportional Control | |
| |
| |
| |
| Controllers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Time-Temperature Characteristics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Tuning of the Controller Parameters | |
| |
| |
| |
| Total Process Control | |
| |
| |
| |
| True Total Extrusion Process Control | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Process Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Fundamental Principles | |
| |
| |
| |
| Balance Equations | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Mass Balance Equation | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Momentum Balance Equation | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Energy Balance Equation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic Thermodynamics | |
| |
| |
| |
| Rubber Elasticity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Strain Induced Crystallization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Heat Transfer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conductive Heat Transfer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Convective Heat Transfer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dimensionless Numbers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Viscous Heat Generation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Radiative Heat Transport | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basics of Devolatilization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Devolatilization of Particular Polymer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Devolatilization of Polymer Melts | |
| |
| |
| Appendix 5.1 | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Important Polymer Properties | |
| |
| |
| |
| Properties of Bulk Materials | |
| |
| |
| |
| Bulk Density | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coefficient of Friction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Particle Size and Shape | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other Properties | |
| |
| |
| |
| Melt Flow Properties | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic Definitions | |
| |
| |
| |
| Power Law Fluid | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other Fluid Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Effect of Temperature and Pressure | |
| |
| |
| |
| Viscoelastic Behavior | |
| |
| |
| |
| Measurement of Flow Properties | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal Properties | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal Conductivity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Specific Volume and Morphology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Specific Heat and Heat of Fusion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Specific Enthalpy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal Diffusivity | |
| |
| |
| |
| Melting Point | |
| |
| |
| |
| Induction Time | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal Characterization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Polymer Property Summary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Functional Process Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic Screw Geometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Solids Conveying | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gravity Induced Solids Conveying | |
| |
| |
| |
| Drag Induced Solids Conveying | |
| |
| |
| |
| Plasticating | |
| |
| |
| |
| Theoretical Model of Contiguous Solids Melting | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other Melting Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Power Consumption in the Melting Zone | |
| |
| |
| |
| Computer Simulation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dispersed Solids Melting | |
| |
| |
| |
| Melt Conveying | |
| |
| |
| |
| Newtonian Fluids | |
| |
| |
| |
| Power Law Fluids | |
| |
| |
| |
| Non-Isothermal Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Die Forming | |
| |
| |
| |
| Velocity and Temperature Profiles | |
| |
| |
| |
| Extrudate Swell | |
| |
| |
| |
| Die Flow Instabilities | |
| |
| |
| |
| Devolatilization | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mixing | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mixing in Screw Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Static Mixing Devices | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dispersive Mixing | |
| |
| |
| |
| Backmixing | |
| |
| |
| Appendix 7.1 | |
| |
| |
| Appendix 7.2 | |
| |
| |
| Appendix 7.3 | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Practical Applications | |
| |
| |
| |
| Extruder Screw Design | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mechanical Considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Torsional Strength of the Screw Root | |
| |
| |
| |
| Strength of the Screw Flight | |
| |
| |
| |
| Lateral Deflection of the Screw | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimization for Output | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimizing for Melt Conveying | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimizing for Plasticating | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimizing for Solids Conveying | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimizing for Power Consumption | |
| |
| |
| |
| Optimum Helix Angle | |
| |
| |
| |
| Effect of Flight Clearance | |
| |
| |
| |
| Effect of Flight Width | |
| |
| |
| |
| Single Flighted Extruder Screws | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Standard Extruder Screw | |
| |
| |
| |
| Modifications of the Standard Extruder Screw | |
| |
| |
| |
| Devolatilizing Extruder Screws | |
| |
| |
| |
| Functional Design Considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Various Vented Extruder Screw Designs | |
| |
| |
| |
| Vent Port Configuration | |
| |
| |
| |
| Multi-Flighted Extruder Screws | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Conventional Multi-Flighted Extruder Screws | |
| |
| |
| |
| Barrier Flight Extruder Screw | |
| |
| |
| |
| Mixing Screws | |
| |
| |
| |
| Dispersive Mixing Elements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Distributive Mixing Elements | |
| |
| |
| |
| Scale-Up | |
| |
| |
| |
| Common Scale-Up Factors | |
| |
| |
| |
| Scale-Up for Heat Transfer | |
| |
| |
| |
| Scale-Up for Mixing | |
| |
| |
| |
| Comparison of Various Scale-Up Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Rebuilding Worn Screws and Barrels | |
| |
| |
| |
| Application of Hardfacing Materials | |
| |
| |
| |
| Rebuilding of Extruder Barrels | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Die Design | |
| |
| |
| |
| Basic Considerations | |
| |
| |
| |
| Balancing the Die by Adjusting the Land Length | |
| |
| |
| |
| Balancing by Channel Height | |
| |
| |
| |
| Other Methods of Die Balancing | |
| |
| |
| |
| Film and Sheet Dies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Flow Adjustment in Sheet and Film Dies | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Horseshoe Die | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pipe and Tubing Dies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Tooling Design for Tubing | |
| |
| |
| |
| Blown Film Dies | |
| |
| |
| |
| The Spiral Mandrel Geometry | |
| |
| |
| |
| Effect of Die Geometry on Flow Distribution | |
| |
| |
| |
| Summary Spiral Mandrel Die Design Variables | |
| |
| |
| |
| Profile Extrusion Dies | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coextrusion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Interface Distortion | |
| |
| |
| |
| Calibrators | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Twin Screw Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Twin versus Single Screw Extruder | |
| |
| |
| |
| Intermeshing Co-Rotating Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Closely Intermeshing Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Self-Wiping Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Intermeshing Counter-Rotating Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Non-Intermeshing Twin Screw Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Coaxial Twin Screw Extruder | |
| |
| |
| |
| Devolatilization in Twin Screw Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Commercial Twin Screw Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Screw Design Issues for Co-Rotating Twin Screw Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Scale-Up in Co-Rotating Twin Screw Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Overview Twin Screw Extruders | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Troubleshooting Extruders | |
| |
| |
| |
| Requirements for Efficient Troubleshooting | |
| |
| |
| |
| Instrumentation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Understanding of the Extrusion Process | |
| |
| |
| |
| Collect and Analyze Historical Data (Timeline) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Team Building | |
| |
| |
| |
| Condition of the Equipment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Information on the Feed Stock | |
| |
| |
| |
| Tools for Troubleshooting | |
| |
| |
| |
| Temperature Measurement Devices | |
| |
| |
| |
| Data Acquisition Systems (DAS) | |
| |
| |
| |
| Light Microscopy | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermochromic Materials | |
| |
| |
| |
| Thermal Analysis | |
| |
| |
| |
| Miscellaneous Tools | |
| |
| |
| |
| Systematic Troubleshooting | |
| |
| |
| |
| Upsets versus Development Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Machine Related Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Polymer Degradation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Extrusion Instabilities | |
| |
| |
| |
| Air Entrapment | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gel Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Die Flow Problems | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| |
| Modeling and Simulation of the Extrusion Process | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| Introduction | |
| |
| |
| |
| Background | |
| |
| |
| |
| Analytical Techniques | |
| |
| |
| |
| Numerical Methods | |
| |
| |
| |
| Remeshing Techniques in Moving Boundary Problems | |
| |
| |
| |
| Rheology | |
| |
| |
| |
| Simulating 3-D Flows with 2-D Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Simulating Flows in Internal Batch Mixers with 2-D Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Simulating Flows in Extrusion with 2-D Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Simulating Flows in Extrusion Dies with 2-D Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Three-Dimensional Simulation | |
| |
| |
| |
| Simulating Flows in the Banbury Mixer with 3-Dimensional Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Simulating Flows in Extrusion Dies with 3-Dimensional Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Simulating Flows in Extrusion with 3-Dimensional Models | |
| |
| |
| |
| Static Mixers | |
| |
| |
| |
| Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Index | |