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| Principles of Pharmacology and toxicology | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Pharmacokinetics | |
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| Absorption | |
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| Distribution | |
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| Biotransformation | |
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| Elimination | |
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| Pharmacodynamics | |
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| Ligand binding and receptors | |
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| Biological variation and data manipulation | |
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| Dose response | |
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| Probit analysis | |
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| Cumulative effects | |
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| Factors influencing responses to xenobiotics | |
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| Age | |
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| Body composition | |
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| Sex | |
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| Genetic factors | |
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| Presence of pathology | |
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| Xenobiotic interactions | |
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| Some toxicological considerations | |
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| Acute vs. chronic toxicity | |
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| Acute toxicity | |
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| Chronic toxicity | |
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| Mutagenesis and carcinogenesis | |
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| Sites of intracellular damage | |
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| DNA repair | |
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| Genetic predisposition to cancer | |
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| Epigenetic mechanisms of carcinogenesis | |
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| The role of cell repair and regeneration in toxic reactions | |
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| Response of tissues to chemical insult | |
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| Fetal toxicology | |
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| Teratogenesis | |
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| Transplacental carcinogenesis | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Review questions | |
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| Answers | |
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| Risk analysis and public perceptions of risk | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Assessment of toxicity vs. risk | |
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| Predicting risk: workplace vs. the environment | |
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| Acute exposures | |
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| Chronic exposures | |
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| Very low-level, long-term exposures | |
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| Carcinogenesis | |
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| Risk assessment and carcinogenesis | |
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| Sources of error in predicting cancer risks | |
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| Portal-of-entry effects | |
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| Age effects | |
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| Exposure to co-carcinogens and promoters | |
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| Species differences | |
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| Extrapolation of animal data to humans | |
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| Hormesis | |
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| Natural vs. anthropogenic carcinogens | |
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| Reliability of tests of carcinogenesis | |
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| Environmental monitoring | |
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| Setting safe limits in the workplace | |
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| Environmental risks: problems with assessment and public perceptions | |
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| The psychological impact of potential environmental risks | |
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| Voluntary risk acceptance vs. imposed risks | |
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| Costs of risk avoidance | |
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| Some examples of major industrial accidents and environmental chemical exposures with human health implications | |
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| Radiation | |
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| Formaldehyde | |
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| Dioxin (TCDD) | |
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| Some legal aspects of risk | |
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| De minimis concept | |
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| Delaney Amendment | |
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| Statistical problems with risk assessment | |
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| Risk management | |
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| The precautionary principle | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Review questions | |
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| Answers | |
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| Case study 1 | |
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| Case study 2 | |
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| Water and soil pollution | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Factors affecting toxicants in water | |
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| Exchange of toxicants in an ecosystem | |
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| Factors (modifiers) affecting uptake of toxicants from the environment | |
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| Biotic modifiers | |
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| Some important definitions | |
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| Toxicity testing in marine and aquatic species | |
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| Water quality | |
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| Sources of pollution | |
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| Some major water pollutants | |
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| Chemical classification of pesticides | |
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| Health hazards of pesticides and related chemicals | |
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| Chlorinated hydrocarbons | |
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| Chlorphenoxy acid herbicides | |
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| Organophosphates (organophosphorus insecticides) | |
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| Carbamates | |
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| Acidity and toxic metals | |
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| Chemical hazards from waste disposal | |
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| The Love Canal story | |
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| Problems with Love Canal studies | |
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| Toxicants in the Great Lakes: implications for human health and wildlife | |
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| Evidence of adverse effects on human health | |
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| Evidence of adverse effects on wildlife | |
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| Global warming and water levels in the Great Lakes | |
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| The marine environment | |
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| Aquatic toxicology | |
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| Biological hazards in drinking water | |
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| Anatomy of a small town disaster | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Review questions | |
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| Answers | |
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| Airborne hazards | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Types of air pollution | |
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| Gaseous pollutants | |
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| Particulates | |
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| Smog | |
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| Sources of air pollution | |
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| Atmospheric distribution of pollutants | |
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| Movement in the troposphere | |
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| Movement in the stratosphere | |
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| Water and soil transport of air pollutants | |
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| Types of pollutants | |
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| Gaseous pollutants | |
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| Particulate pollutants | |
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| Health effects of air pollution | |
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| Acute effects | |
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| Chronic effects | |
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| Air pollution in the workplace | |
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| Asbestos | |
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| Silicosis | |
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| Pyrolysis of plastics | |
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| Dust | |
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| CO and NO[subscript 2] | |
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| Multiple chemical sensitivity | |
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| Chemical impact of pollutants on the environment | |
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| Sulfur dioxide and acid rain | |
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| The chemistry of ozone | |
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| Chlorine | |
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| Global warming | |
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| Water | |
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| Carbon dioxide | |
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| Methane | |
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| Subtle greenhouse effects | |
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| Global cooling: new Ice Age? | |
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| Sulfur dioxide | |
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| Motor vehicle exhaust | |
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| Natural factors and climate change | |
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| Remedies | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Review questions | |
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| Answers | |
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| Case study 3 | |
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| Case study 4 | |
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| Case study 5 | |
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| Case study 6 | |
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| Case study 7 | |
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| Case study 8 | |
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| Halogenated hydrocarbons and halogenated aromatic hydrocarbons | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Early examples of toxicity from halogenated hydrocarbons | |
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| Physicochemical characteristics and classes of halogenated hydrocarbons | |
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| Antibacterial disinfectants | |
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| Herbicides | |
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| Dioxin (TCDD) toxicity | |
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| The role of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and enzyme induction | |
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| Paraquat toxicity | |
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| Insecticides | |
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| Industrial and commercial chemicals | |
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| Solvents | |
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| Trihalomethanes (THMs) | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Review questions | |
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| Answers | |
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| Case study 9 | |
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| Case study 10 | |
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| Toxicity of metals | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Lead (Pb) | |
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| Toxicokinetics of lead | |
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| Cellular toxicity of lead | |
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| Fetal toxicity | |
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| Treatment | |
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| Mercury (Hg) | |
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| Elemental mercury toxicity | |
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| Inorganic mercurial salts | |
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| Organic mercurials | |
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| Mechanism of mercury toxicity | |
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| Treatment of mercury poisoning | |
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| The Grassy Narrows story | |
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| Cadmium (Cd) | |
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| Cadmium toxicokinetics | |
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| Cadmium toxicity | |
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| Treatment | |
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| Arsenic (As) | |
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| Toxicokinetics of arsenicals | |
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| Toxicity | |
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| Treatment | |
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| Environmental effects of arsenic | |
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| Chromium (Cr) | |
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| Other metals | |
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| Metallothioneins | |
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| Carcinogenicity of metals | |
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| Unusual sources of heavy metal exposure | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Review questions | |
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| Answers | |
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| Case study 11 | |
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| Case study 12 | |
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| Case study 13 | |
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| Organic solvents and related chemicals | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Classes of solvents | |
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| Aliphatic hydrocarbons | |
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| Halogenated aliphatic hydrocarbons | |
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| Aliphatic alcohols | |
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| Glycols and glycol ethers | |
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| Aromatic hydrocarbons | |
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| Solvent-related cancer in the workplace | |
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| Benzene | |
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| Bis(chloromethyl) ether (BCME) | |
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| Dimethylformamide (DMF) and glycol ethers | |
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| Ethylene oxide (CH[subscript 2]CH[subscript 2]O) | |
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| Factors influencing the risk of a toxic reaction | |
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| Non-occupational exposures to solvents | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Review questions | |
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| Answers | |
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| Case study 14 | |
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| Case studies 15 and 16 | |
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| Case study 15 | |
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| Case study 16 | |
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| Food additives, drug residues and other food toxicants | |
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| Food additives | |
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| Food and drug regulations | |
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| Some types of food additives | |
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| Artificial food colors | |
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| Emulsifiers | |
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| Preservatives and anti-oxidants | |
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| Artificial sweeteners | |
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| Flavor enhancers | |
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| Drug residues | |
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| Antibiotics and drug resistance | |
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| Infectious diseases | |
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| Allergy | |
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| Diethylstilbestrol | |
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| Bovine growth hormone | |
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| Natural toxicants and carcinogens in human foods | |
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| Some natural toxicants | |
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| Favism | |
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| Herbal remedies | |
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| Natural carcinogens in foods | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Review questions | |
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| Answers | |
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| Case study 17 | |
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| Pesticides | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Classes of insecticides | |
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| Organochlorines (chlorinated hydrocarbons) | |
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| Organophosphorus insecticides | |
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| Carbamate insecticides | |
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| Botanical insecticides | |
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| Herbicides | |
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| Chlorphenoxy compounds | |
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| Dinitrophenols | |
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| Bipyridyls | |
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| Carbamate herbicides | |
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| Triazines | |
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| Fungicides | |
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| Dicarboximides | |
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| Newer biological control methods | |
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| Government regulation of pesticides | |
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| Problems associated with pesticides | |
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| Development of resistance | |
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| Multiple resistance | |
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| Nonspecificity | |
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| Environmental contamination | |
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| Balancing the risks and the benefits | |
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| Toxicity of pesticides for humans | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Review questions | |
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| Answers | |
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| Case study 18 | |
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| Case study 19 | |
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| Mycotoxins and other toxins from unicellular organisms | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Some human health problems due to mycotoxins | |
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| Ergotism | |
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| Aleukia | |
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| Aflatoxins | |
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| Fumonisins | |
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| Other mycotoxic hazards to human health | |
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| Economic impact of mycotoxins | |
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| Fusarium life cycle | |
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| Trichothecenes | |
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| Zearalonone | |
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| Vomitoxin (deoxynivalenol or DON) | |
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| Other trichothecenes | |
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| Detoxification of grains | |
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| Harvesting and milling | |
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| Chemical treatments | |
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| Binding Agents | |
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| Other techniques | |
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| Other toxins in unicellular members of the plant kingdom | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Review questions | |
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| Answers | |
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| Animal and plant poisons | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Toxic and venomous animals | |
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| Toxic and venomous marine animals | |
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| Toxic and venomous land animals | |
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| Toxic plants and mushrooms | |
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| Vesicants | |
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| Cardiac glycosides | |
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| Astringents and gastrointestinal irritants (pyrogallol tannins) | |
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| Autonomic agents | |
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| Dissolvers of microtubules | |
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| Phorbol esters | |
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| Cyanogenic glycosides | |
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| Convulsants | |
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| Use in research and treatment | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Review questions | |
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| Answers | |
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| Case study 20 | |
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| Case study 21 | |
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| Case study 22 | |
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| Case study 23 | |
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| Case study 24 | |
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| Case study 25 | |
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| Environmental hormone disrupters | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Lake Apopka incident | |
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| A brief review of the physiology of estrogens and androgens | |
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| Mechanisms of hormone disruption | |
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| Methods of testing for hormone disruption | |
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| Some examples of xenoestrogen interactions with E2 receptors or effects in vivo or in vitro | |
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| Some effects on the male reproductive system | |
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| Modulation of hormone activity through effects on the Ah receptor | |
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| Phytoestrogens | |
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| Results of human studies | |
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| Males | |
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| Females | |
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| Effects in livestock and wildlife | |
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| Problems in interpreting and extrapolating results to humans | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Review questions | |
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| Answers | |
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| Radiation hazards | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Sources and types of radiation | |
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| Sources | |
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| Types of radioactive energy resulting from nuclear decay | |
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| Measurement of radiation | |
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| Measures of energy | |
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| Measures of damage | |
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| Major nuclear disasters of historic importance | |
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| Hiroshima | |
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| Chernobyl | |
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| Three Mile Island | |
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| The Hanford release | |
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| Radon gas: the natural radiation | |
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| Tissue sensitivity to radiation | |
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| Microwaves | |
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| Ultraviolet radiation | |
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| Medical uses of UV radiation | |
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| Extra-low-frequency (ELF) electromagnetic radiation | |
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| Irradiation of foodstuffs | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Review questions | |
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| Answers | |
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| Gaia and chaos: how things are connected | |
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| The Gaia hypothesis | |
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| Chaos theory | |
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| Other examples of interconnected systems | |
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| A vicious circle | |
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| Domino effects of global warming | |
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| A feedback loop | |
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| Food production and the environment | |
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| Meat vs. grain | |
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| Genetically modified plant foods | |
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| The environment and cancer | |
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| Further reading | |
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| Case study reviews | |
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| Case study 1 | |
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| Case study 2 | |
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| Case study 3 | |
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| Case study 4 | |
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| Case study 5 | |
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| Case study 6 | |
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| Case study 7 | |
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| Case study 8 | |
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| Case study 9 | |
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| Case study 10 | |
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| Case study 11 | |
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| Case study 12 | |
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| Case study 13 | |
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| Case study 14 | |
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| Case studies 15 and 16 | |
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| Case study 17 | |
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| Case study 18 | |
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| Case study 19 | |
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| Case study 20 | |
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| Case study 21 | |
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| Case study 22 | |
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| Case study 23 | |
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| Case study 24 | |
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| Case study 25 | |