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| Foreword | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Understanding "Culture" | |
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| The Concept of Culture | |
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| The "Unpackaging" of Culture | |
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| Meaning of the Word Culture and Definitions of the Concept | |
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| Culture As Is Versus Culture As It Would Be | |
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| Classifications of the Concepts of Culture | |
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| Subjective Culture: Mental Software | |
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| Objective Culture: Institutions and Artifacts | |
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| Culture as a System of Behaviors | |
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| Culture as a Set of Meanings | |
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| Culture as an Independently Existing Phenomenon | |
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| Culture as a Subjective Human Construct | |
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| Conclusions About the Conceptualization of Culture | |
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| Main Characteristics of Culture | |
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| Sharedness | |
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| Normalcy | |
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| Integration, Functionality, Rationality, and Logic | |
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| Stability and Changeability | |
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| Transmittability | |
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| Complexity | |
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| National Culture | |
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| National Culture Versus Organizational Culture | |
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| National Culture Versus Religious Denomination Culture | |
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| Diffuseness | |
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| Uncontrollability | |
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| Predictability | |
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| The Elements of Culture | |
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| Particular Elements of Culture | |
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| Universal Elements of Culture | |
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| Self-Reports | |
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| Values | |
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| Norms and Ideologies | |
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| Values for Children | |
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| Beliefs | |
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| Behavioral Intentions | |
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| Self-Reported Behaviors | |
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| Attitudes | |
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| Self-Descriptions | |
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| Reports of Impressions of Others | |
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| Peer Reports | |
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| Idealistic Reports | |
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| Stereotypes | |
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| Mental Skills and Knowledge | |
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| General Intelligence and Related Domains | |
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| Perception Characteristics | |
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| Cognitive Patterns | |
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| Observable Behaviors | |
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| Direct Observation of Behaviors | |
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| National Statistics | |
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| Statistical Products | |
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| What Else Can Be Studied by Cross-Cultural Analysts? | |
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| Studying Culture | |
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| Types of Cross-Cultural Studies: Merits and Pitfalls | |
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| Studies of Culture Versus Studies of Something Else | |
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| Qualitative Versus Quantitative Studies | |
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| Idiographic Versus Nomothetic Studies | |
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| Insiders' Versus Outsiders' Studies | |
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| Studies Comparing Variables Versus Studies Comparing Cases | |
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| Structure-Oriented Versus Level-Oriented Studies | |
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| Synchronic Versus Diachronic (or Longitudinal) Studies | |
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| Deductive Versus Inductive Studies | |
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| Paper-and-Pencil Versus Observational Studies | |
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| Studies Using Primary Data Versus Studies Using Secondary Data | |
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| Studies Across Individuals First Versus Studies Directly Across Societies | |
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| Theoretical Versus Empirical Perspectives | |
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| Theory Before Empiricism | |
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| Empiricism Before Theory | |
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| The Goal of Culturology and the Other Social Sciences: Theory or Empiricism? | |
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| Defining Constructs Empirically | |
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| A Note on Operationalism as a Method of Defining Constructs in Culturology or Other Domains | |
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| A Search for Truth Versus a Search for What Works | |
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| Cross-Cultural Comparability | |
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| Etic Versus Emic Approaches | |
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| Incomparable Phenomena | |
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| Criteria for the Cross-Cultural Transferability of Etic Individual-Level Constructs and the Instruments for Their Measurement | |
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| Criteria for the Applicability of Etic Approaches to Studies at the Societal Level | |
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| Are Etic Tests Preferable to Emic Ones? | |
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| Paper-and-Pencil Studies | |
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| Selecting Samples of Respondents: Nationally Representative Samples Versus Matched Samples | |
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| Types of Items in Noncognitive Paper-and-Pencil Studies | |
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| Likert Scales | |
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| Free-Choice Items | |
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| Forced-Choice Items | |
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| Issues Associated With Likert Scales | |
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| The Reference Group Effect | |
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| Potential Meanings of Some Positions on a Likert Scale in Cross-Cultural Analysis | |
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| Extracting Societal Information From Items on a Likert Scale | |
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| Response Style | |
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| Detection of Response Style | |
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| Treatment of Response Style: Undesirable Bias or Normal Style? | |
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| Causes of Response Style: The Number of Points on a Likert Scale | |
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| Causes of Response Style: The Language of the Questionnaire | |
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| Causes of Response Style: The Role of Culture | |
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| Causes of Response Style: The Nature of the Items | |
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| Causes of Response Style: The Role of Intelligence and Education | |
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| Conclusions About the Causes of Response Style | |
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| Dealing With Response Style Before the Study: Choice of Items and Scales | |
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| Dealing With Response Style After the Study: Standardization of Scores | |
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| Issues Associated With Forced-Choice Items | |
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| Issues Associated With Free-Choice Items | |
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| Other Issues That Can Affect Data for Cross-Cultural Research | |
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| Poverty | |
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| Distance From the Researcher | |
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| Social Desirability | |
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| Taboos | |
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| Intelligibility Problems | |
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| Semantic Differences | |
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| Political Factors | |
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| Test-Retest Reliability of Paper-and-Pencil Studies at the National Level and Other Statistics | |
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| Face Validity | |
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| Common Method Variance and Validation | |
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| Data Analysis | |
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| Sample Issues | |
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| Selection of an Appropriate Sample of Societies | |
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| Galton's Problem | |
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| Missing Data Bias | |
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| Dimensions of Culture | |
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| The Utility of the Dimension Paradigm in Cross-Cultural Research | |
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| The Nature of Cultural and Other Dimensions | |
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| Why Dimensions Are Subjective Human Constructs | |
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| Subjective Selection of Samples for the Construction of Dimensions | |
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| Subjective Selection of Items for the Construction of Dimensions | |
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| Subjective Selection of the Number of Dimensions | |
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| Subjective Selection of the Nature of the Dimensions | |
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| Individual and Ecological Dimensions: Different Levels and Units of Analysis | |
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| Polarity | |
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| Different Versions of the Same Ecological Dimension? | |
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| Dimensions and Polythetic Classes | |
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| Data Reduction | |
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| Agreement and Aggregation | |
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| Correlations and Scales | |
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| Scale Reliability | |
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| Multidimensional Scaling | |
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| Plotting Variables on an MDS Map | |
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| Identifying Cultural Dimensions on an MDS Map | |
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| Plotting Cases on an MDS Map and Calculating Case Coordinates | |
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| Using MDS for Identifying Typologies | |
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| Issues Related to Multidimensional Scaling as a Data Reduction Technique | |
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| Factor Analysis | |
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| Calculation of Factor Scores | |
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| Issues Related to Factor Analysis as a Data Reduction Method | |
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| Factor Analysis as a Scale Reliability Test | |
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| How Do We Know That We Have Constructed Appropriate Dimensions? | |
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| Constructing Individual and Ecological Dimensions | |
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| Clustering | |
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| Looking for Cause-and-Effect Relationships | |
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| The Consilience Approach | |
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| Contextual Consilience | |
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| Methodological Consilience | |
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| Predictive Consilience | |
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| Exclusive Consilience | |
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| The Issue of Time Sequence | |
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| Looking for Noncultural Variables That May Be Determinants of Culture | |
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| Multiple Regression Analysis | |
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| Divergent Results From Different Types of MRA | |
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| The Excluded Variables | |
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| Issues Related to Samples | |
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| Issues Related to the Independent Variables | |
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| An Example of an MRA | |
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| Major Cross-Cultural Studies | |
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| Cultural Dimensions Across Modern Nations | |
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| Geert Hofstede (1980, 2001): A Study of Values, Beliefs, and Norms Across the IBM Corporation | |
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| Chinese Culture Connection (1987): A Study of National Values Based on a Chinese Questionnaire | |
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| Shalom Schwartz (1994): A Study of the Values of Schoolteachers and University Students | |
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| Peter Smith, Fons Trompenaars, and Shaun Dugan (1995): A Study of Locus of Control | |
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| Peter Smith, Shaun Dugan, and Fons Trompenaars (1996): A Study of the Values and Beliefs of Organizational Employees | |
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| Robert Levine and Ara Norenzayan (1999): A Study of the Pace of Life | |
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| Robert Levine, Ara Norenzayan, and Karen Philbrick (2001): A Study of Helping Strangers | |
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| Ashleigh Merritt (2000): An Attempt to Replicate Hofstede's Four Dimensions | |
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| Ronald Inglehart and Wayne Baker (2000): An Analysis of the World Values Survey | |
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| Ulrich Schimmack, Shigeiro Oishi, and Ed Diener (2002): A Study of Personal Emotional Dialecticism and Frequencies of Pleasant and Unpleasant Emotions | |
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| Peter Smith, Mark Peterson, and Shalom Schwartz (2002): A Study of Managers' Sources of Guidance | |
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| Evert van de Vliert and Onne Janssen (2002): A Study of Performance Motives | |
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| Robert McCrae (2002): A Comparison of Mean National and Ethnic Personality Traits (Self-Reports) | |
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| Robert McCrae and Antonio Terracciano (2005): A Study of Mean National or Ethnic Personality Traits (Peer Reports) | |
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| David Schmitt, Juri Allik, Robert McCrae, and Veronica Benet-Martinez (2007): A Study of the Geographic Distribution of the Big Five Personality Traits (Self-Reports) | |
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| Michael Bond, Kwok Leung, and Associates (2004): A Study of Social Axioms | |
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| Project GLOBE (2004): A Study of National Stereotypes and Ideologies | |
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| Project GLOBE (2004): A Study of Culturally Endorsed Leadership Profiles | |
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| Eva Green, Jean-Claude Deschamps, and Dario Paez (2005): A Study of Beliefs and Values | |
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| David Schmitt (2005): A Study of Sociosexuality | |
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| Peter Kuppens, Eva Ceulemans, Marieke Timmerman, Ed Diener, and Chu Kim-Prieto (2006): A Study of Positive and Negative Emotions | |
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| Christian Welzel (2010): An Analysis of the World Values Survey | |
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| Michael Minkov (2009a): A Study of Social Polarization in Social Opinions and Life-Quality Judgments | |
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| Michael Minkov (2011): A Study of Values Related to National Economic Growth and Educational Achievement | |
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| Michael Minkov (2011): A Study of National Homicide Rates and Their Correlates | |
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| Michael Minkov and Geert Hofstede (2012a): An Analysis of the World Values Survey Replicating Two Dimensions of the Chinese Values Survey | |
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| Geert Hofstede, Bram Neuijen, Denise Daval Ohayv, and Geert Sanders (1990): A Study of Organizational Cultures Across 20 Danish and Dutch Organization Units | |
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| A Summary of the Observed Cultural Differences Across the Globe | |
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| Cultural Differences Between Rich and Developing Countries | |
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| Cultural Differences Across Rich Countries | |
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| Cultural Differences Between Eastern Europe and Latin America | |
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| Cultural Differences Between East Asia and the Arab World | |
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| Cultural Differences Between the Arab World and Sub-Saharan Africa | |
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| Appendix | |
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| References | |
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| Index | |
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| About the Author | |