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| Preface? | |
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| Informal Logic | |
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| Basic Concepts | |
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| Arguments,Premises, and Conclusions | |
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| Note on the History of Logic | |
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| Recognizing Arguments | |
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| Eminent Logicians: Aristotle | |
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| Simple Noninferential Passages | |
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| Expository Passages | |
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| Illustrations | |
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| Explanations | |
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| Conditional Statements | |
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| Summary | |
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| Deduction and Induction | |
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| Ruth Barcan Marcus | |
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| Deductive Argument Forms | |
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| Inductive Argument Forms | |
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| Further Considerations | |
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| Summary | |
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| Validity, Truth, Soundness, Strength, Cogency | |
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| Deductive Arguments | |
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| Inductive Arguments | |
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| Summary | |
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| Eminent Logicians: Chrysippus | |
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| Argument Forms: Proving Invalidity | |
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| Counterexample Method | |
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| Extended Arguments | |
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| Summary | |
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| Language: Meaning and Definition | |
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| Varieties of Meaning | |
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| The Intension and Extension of Terms | |
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| Definitions and Their Purposes | |
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| Stipulative Definitions | |
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| Lexical Definitions | |
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| Precising Definitions | |
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| Eminent Logicians: Peter Abelard | |
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| Theoretical Definitions | |
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| Persuasive Definitions | |
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| Definitional Techniques | |
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| Extensional (Denotative) Definitions | |
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| Intensional (Connotative) Definitions | |
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| Criteria for Lexical Definitions | |
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| A Lexical Definition Should Conform to the Standards of Proper Grammar | |
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| A Lexical Definition Should Convey the Essential Meaning of the Word Being Defined | |
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| A Lexical Definition Should Be Neither Too Broad nor Too Narrow | |
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| A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Circularity | |
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| A Lexical Definition Should Not Be Negative When It Can Be Affirmative | |
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| A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Figurative, Obscure,Vague, or Ambiguous Language | |
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| A Lexical Definition Should Avoid Affective Terminology | |
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| A Lexical Definition Should Indicate the Context to Which the Definiens Pertains | |
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| Summary | |
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| Informal Fallacies | |
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| Fallacies in General | |
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| Fallacies of Relevance | |
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| Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad Baculum: Appeal to the"Stick") | |
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| Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad Misericordiam) | |
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| Appeal to the People (Argumentum ad Populum) | |
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| Argument Against the Person (Argumentum ad Hominem) | |
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| Accident | |
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| Straw Man | |
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| Missing the Point (Ignoratio Elenchi ) | |
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| Red Herring | |
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| Fallacies of Weak Induction | |
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| Appeal to Unqualified Authority (Argumentum ad Verecundiam) | |
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| Appeal to Ignorance. (Argumentum ad Ignorantiam) | |
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| Hasty Generalization (Converse Accident) | |
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| False Cause | |
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| Slippery Slope | |
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| Weak Analogy | |
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| Eminent Logicians: William of Ockham | |
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| Fallacies of Presumption, Ambiguity, and Grammatical Analogy | |
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| Begging the Question (Petitio Principii) | |
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| Complex Question | |
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| False Dichotomy | |
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| Suppressed Evidence | |
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| Equivocation | |
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| Amphiboly | |
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| Composition | |
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| Division | |
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| Fallacies in Ordinary Language | |
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| Detecting Fallacies | |
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| Avoiding Fallacies | |
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| Summary | |
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| Formal Logic | |
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| Categorical Propositions | |
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| The Components of Categorical Propositions | |
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| Alice Ambrose | |
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| Quality, Quantity, and Distribution | |
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| Venn Diagrams and the Modern Square of Opposition | |
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| Aristotle and Boole | |
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| Eminent Logicians: George Boole | |
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| Venn Diagrams | |
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| The Modern Square of Opposition | |
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| Testing Immediate Inferences | |
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| Conversion, Obversion, and Contraposition | |
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| Conversion | |
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| Obversion | |
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| Contraposition | |
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| The Traditional Square of Opposition | |
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| Testing Immediate Inferences | |
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| Venn Diagrams and the Traditional Standpoint | |
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| Proving the Traditional Square of Opposition | |
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| Testing Immediate Inferences | |
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| Translating Ordinary Language Statements into Categorical Form | |
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| Terms Without Nouns | |
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| Nonstandard Verbs | |
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| Singular Propositions | |
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| Adverbs and Pronouns | |
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| Unexpressed Quantifiers | |
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| Nonstandard Quantifiers | |
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| Conditional Statements | |
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| Exclusive Propositions | |
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| "The Only" | |
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| Exceptive Propositions | |
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| Summary | |
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| Categorical Syllogisms | |
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| Standard Form, Mood, and Figure | |
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| Venn Diagrams | |
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| Eminent Logicians: John Venn | |
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| Boolean Standpoint | |
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| Aristotelian Standpoint | |
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| Rules and Fallacies | |
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| Boolean Standpoint | |
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| Aristotelian Standpoint | |
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| Proving the Rules | |
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| Reducing the Number of Terms | |
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| Saul Kripke | |
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| Ordinary Language Arguments | |
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| Enthymemes | |
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| Sorites | |
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| Summary | |
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| Propositional Logic | |
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| Symbols and Translation | |
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| Eminent Logicians: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz | |
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| Truth Functions | |
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| Definitions of the Logical Operators | |
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| Computing the Truth Value of Longer Propositions | |
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| Further Comparison with Ordinary Language | |
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| Truth Tables for Propositions | |
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| Classifying Statements | |
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| Comparing Statements | |
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| Truth Tables for Arguments | |
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| Ada Byron, Countess of Lovelace | |
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| Indirect Truth Tables | |
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| Preliminary Skills | |
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| Testing Arguments for Validity | |
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| Testing Statements for Consistency | |
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| Eminent Logicians: Augustus De Morgan | |
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| Argument Forms and Fallacies | |
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| Common Argument Forms | |
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| Refuting Constructive and Destructive Dilemmas | |
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| Note on Invalid Forms | |
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| Summary and Application | |
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| Summary | |
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| Natural Deduction in Propositional Logic | |
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| Rules of Implication I | |
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| Rules of Implication II | |
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| Rules of Replacement I. Willard Van Orman Quine | |
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| Rules of Replacement Ii | |
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| Conditional Proof | |
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| Eminent Logicians: Gottlob Frege | |
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| Indirect Proof | |
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| Proving Logical Truths | |
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| Summary | |
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| Predicate Logic | |
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| Symbols and Translation | |
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| Using the Rules of Inference | |
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| Change of Quantifier Rule | |
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| Eminent Logicians: Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell | |
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| Conditional and Indirect Proof | |
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| Proving Invalidity | |
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| Counterexample Method | |
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| Finite Universe Method | |
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| Relational Predicates and Overlapping Quantifiers | |
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| Translating Relational Statements | |
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| Using the Rules of Inference | |
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| Identity | |
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| Simple Identity Statements | |
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| Eminent Logicians: Kurt G?del | |
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| "Only," "The Only," and "No . . . Except" | |
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| "All Except" | |
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| Superlatives | |
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| Numerical Statements | |
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| Definite Descriptions | |
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| Using the Rules of Inference | |
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| Summary | |
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| Inductive Logic | |
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| Analogy and Legal and Moral Reasoning | |
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| Analogical Reasoning | |
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| Legal Reasoning | |
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| Moral Reasoning | |
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| Summary | |
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| Causality and Mill's Methods | |
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| "Cause"and Necessary and Sufficient Conditions | |
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| Mill's Five Methods | |
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| Method of Agreement | |
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| Method of Difference | |
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| Eminent Logicians: John Stuart Mill | |
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| Joint Method of Agreement and Difference | |
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| Method of Residues | |
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| Method of Concomitant Variation | |
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| Mill's Methods and Science | |
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| Summary | |
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| Probability | |
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| Theories of Probability | |
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| The Probability Calculus | |
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| Restricted Conjunction Rule | |
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| General Conjunction Rule | |
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| Restricted Disjunction Rule | |
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| General Disjunction Rule | |
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| Negation Rule | |
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| Bayes's Theorem | |
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| Additional Applications | |
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| Summary | |
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| Statistical Reasoning | |
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| Evaluating Statistics | |
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| Samples | |
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| The Meaning of "Average" | |
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| Dispersion | |
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| Graphs and Pictograms | |
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| Percentages | |
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| Summary | |
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| Hypothetical/Scientific Reasoning | |
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| The Hypothetical Method | |
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| Hypothetical Reasoning: Four Examples from Science Radium | |
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| Neptune | |
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| Atmospheric Pressure | |
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| Spontaneous Generation | |
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| The Proof of Hypotheses | |
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| Eminent Logicians: Charles Sanders Peirce | |
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| The Tentative Acceptance of Hypotheses | |
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| Summary | |
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| Science and Superstition | |
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| Distinguishing Between Science and Superstition | |
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| Evidentiary Support | |
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| Objectivity | |
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| Integrity | |
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| Concluding Remarks | |
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| Summary | |
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| Appendix: Logic and Graduate-Level Admissions Tests | |
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| Answers to Selected Exercises | |
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| Glossary/Index | |