| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| The Science of Plant Ecology | |
| |
| |
| Ecology as a Science | |
| |
| |
| The Genesis of Scientific Knowledge | |
| |
| |
| Objectivity, Subjectivity, Choice, and Chance in Scientific Research | |
| |
| |
| Experiments: The Heart of Research | |
| |
| |
| Testing Theories | |
| |
| |
| Specific Results versus General Understanding | |
| |
| |
| Scale and Heterogeneity | |
| |
| |
| The Structure and History of Plant Ecology | |
| |
| |
| The Individual and its Environment | |
| |
| |
| Photosynthesis and the Light Environment | |
| |
| |
| The Process of Photosynthesis | |
| |
| |
| Photosynthetic Rates | |
| |
| |
| Limitations Caused by Light Levels | |
| |
| |
| Limitations on Carbon Uptake | |
| |
| |
| Variation in Photosynthetic Rates within and between Habitats | |
| |
| |
| Photorespiration | |
| |
| |
| The Three Photosynthetic Pathways | |
| |
| |
| C[subscript 3] Photosynthesis | |
| |
| |
| C[subscript 4] Photosynthesis | |
| |
| |
| Stable Isotopes and Photosynthesis | |
| |
| |
| Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (CAM Photosynthesis) | |
| |
| |
| Evolution of the Three Photosynthetic Pathways | |
| |
| |
| Phylogeny of the Photosynthetic Pathways | |
| |
| |
| Photosynthesis Through Evolutionary Time | |
| |
| |
| Growth Form, Phenology, and Distribution of C[subscript 3], C[subscript 4], and CAM Plants | |
| |
| |
| Growth Forms and Habitats | |
| |
| |
| Phenology | |
| |
| |
| Geographic Distributions | |
| |
| |
| Adaptations to the Light Environment | |
| |
| |
| Sun and Shade Leaves | |
| |
| |
| Species' Adaptations to High and Low Light Habitats | |
| |
| |
| Leaf Iridescence and Structural Coloration | |
| |
| |
| Do Sun and Shade Adaptations Exist within Species? | |
| |
| |
| Day Length: Responses and Adaptations | |
| |
| |
| Water Relations and Energy Balance | |
| |
| |
| Adapting to Life on Land | |
| |
| |
| Water Potential | |
| |
| |
| The Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum | |
| |
| |
| Transpiration and the Control of Water Loss | |
| |
| |
| Strategies for Coping with Water Availability Conditions | |
| |
| |
| Whole-Plant Adaptations to Low Water Availability | |
| |
| |
| Physiological Adaptations | |
| |
| |
| Anatomical and Morphological Adaptations | |
| |
| |
| The Energy Balance of Leaves | |
| |
| |
| Radiant Energy | |
| |
| |
| Why the Sky Is Blue and the Setting Sun Is Red | |
| |
| |
| Conduction and Convection | |
| |
| |
| Latent Heat Exchange | |
| |
| |
| Putting It All Together: Leaf Temperature | |
| |
| |
| Soils, Mineral Nutrition, and Belowground Interactions | |
| |
| |
| Soil Composition and Structure | |
| |
| |
| Soil Texture | |
| |
| |
| Soil pH | |
| |
| |
| Horizons and Profiles | |
| |
| |
| Origins and Classification | |
| |
| |
| Organic Matter and the Role of Organisms | |
| |
| |
| Water Movement within Soils | |
| |
| |
| Plant Mineral Nutrition | |
| |
| |
| Nitrogen in Plants and Soils | |
| |
| |
| Biological Nitrogen Fixation | |
| |
| |
| Symbioses and Mutualisms | |
| |
| |
| Phosphorus | |
| |
| |
| Mycorrhizae | |
| |
| |
| Major Groups of Mycorrhizae | |
| |
| |
| The Role of Mycorrhizae in Plant Phosphorus Nutrition | |
| |
| |
| Other Functions of Mycorrhizae | |
| |
| |
| Orchids and Their Mycorrhizal Associations | |
| |
| |
| Mutualism or Parasitism? | |
| |
| |
| Plant Interconnections via Mycorrhizal Fungi | |
| |
| |
| Evolution and Population Biology | |
| |
| |
| Processes of Evolution | |
| |
| |
| Natural Selection | |
| |
| |
| Variation and Natural Selection | |
| |
| |
| The Components of Natural Selection | |
| |
| |
| Phenotypic Variation and Phenotypic Plasticity | |
| |
| |
| Heritability | |
| |
| |
| Resemblance among Relatives | |
| |
| |
| Partitioning Phenotypic Variation | |
| |
| |
| Genotype-Environment Interactions | |
| |
| |
| Gene-Environment Covariation | |
| |
| |
| Patterns of Adaptation | |
| |
| |
| Levels of Selection | |
| |
| |
| Other Evolutionary Processes | |
| |
| |
| Processes that Increase Variation | |
| |
| |
| Processes that Decrease Variation | |
| |
| |
| Variation among Populations | |
| |
| |
| Outcomes of Evolution | |
| |
| |
| Heavy-Metal Tolerance | |
| |
| |
| Ecotypes | |
| |
| |
| Adaptive Plasticity | |
| |
| |
| Selection in Structured Populations | |
| |
| |
| Frequency-Dependent Selection | |
| |
| |
| Group Selection | |
| |
| |
| Convergent Evolution | |
| |
| |
| Speciation | |
| |
| |
| Population Structure, Growth, and Decline | |
| |
| |
| Some Issues in the Study of Plant Population Growth | |
| |
| |
| Population Structure | |
| |
| |
| Some Population Structure Issues Special to Plants | |
| |
| |
| Sources of Population Structure | |
| |
| |
| Studying Population Growth and Decline | |
| |
| |
| Life Cycle Graphs | |
| |
| |
| Demography of an Endangered Cactus, Coryphantha Robbinsorum | |
| |
| |
| Matrix Models | |
| |
| |
| Analyzing Matrix Models | |
| |
| |
| Multiplying a Population Vector by a Matrix | |
| |
| |
| But Real Plants Live in Variable Environments | |
| |
| |
| Lifetime Reproduction: The Net Reproductive Rate | |
| |
| |
| Reproductive Value: The Contribution of Each Stage to Population Growth | |
| |
| |
| Partial Derivatives | |
| |
| |
| Sensitivity | |
| |
| |
| Elasticity | |
| |
| |
| Age and Stage Revisited | |
| |
| |
| Other Approaches to Modeling Plant Demography | |
| |
| |
| Demographic Studies of Long-Lived Plants | |
| |
| |
| Random Variation in Population Growth and Decline | |
| |
| |
| Causes of Random Variation | |
| |
| |
| Long-Term Growth Rates | |
| |
| |
| Studying Variable Population Growth | |
| |
| |
| Growth and Reproduction of Individuals | |
| |
| |
| Plant Growth | |
| |
| |
| Ecology of Growth | |
| |
| |
| Plant Architecture and Light Interception | |
| |
| |
| Growth of Clonal Plants | |
| |
| |
| Plant Reproduction | |
| |
| |
| Vegetative Reproduction | |
| |
| |
| Seeds Produced Asexually | |
| |
| |
| Sexual Life Cycles of Plants | |
| |
| |
| Pollination Ecology | |
| |
| |
| Wind Pollination | |
| |
| |
| Attracting Animal Visitors: Visual Displays | |
| |
| |
| Attracting Animal Visitors: Floral Odors and Acoustic Guides | |
| |
| |
| Limiting Unwanted Visits | |
| |
| |
| Pollination Syndromes | |
| |
| |
| Aquatic Plants and Pollination | |
| |
| |
| Specialized Plants and Pollinators | |
| |
| |
| Who Mates with Whom? | |
| |
| |
| Plant Gender | |
| |
| |
| Competition for Pollinators and among Pollen Grains | |
| |
| |
| Pollination Experiments | |
| |
| |
| Pollen Dispersal and Its Consequences | |
| |
| |
| Assortative Mating | |
| |
| |
| Understanding Plant Mating Systems | |
| |
| |
| The Ecology of Fruits and Seeds | |
| |
| |
| Seed Dispersal Patterns | |
| |
| |
| Seed Banks | |
| |
| |
| Plant Life Histories | |
| |
| |
| Size and Number of Seeds | |
| |
| |
| Life History Strategies | |
| |
| |
| Seed Germination | |
| |
| |
| Life Span | |
| |
| |
| r- and K-selection | |
| |
| |
| Grime's Triangular Model | |
| |
| |
| Demographic Life History Theory | |
| |
| |
| Reproductive Allocation | |
| |
| |
| Bet Hedging in a Variable Environment | |
| |
| |
| Difficulties in Measuring Trade-Offs | |
| |
| |
| Phenology: Within-Year Schedules of Growth and Reproduction | |
| |
| |
| Vegetative Phenology | |
| |
| |
| Evergreen versus Deciduous Habits | |
| |
| |
| Reproductive Phenology: Abiotic Factors | |
| |
| |
| Reproductive Phenology: Biotic Factors | |
| |
| |
| From Populations to Communities | |
| |
| |
| Competition | |
| |
| |
| Competition at the Level of Individuals | |
| |
| |
| Size and Density | |
| |
| |
| Mortality, Size, and Density | |
| |
| |
| Mechanisms of Competition | |
| |
| |
| Is Bigger Better? | |
| |
| |
| Apparent Competition | |
| |
| |
| Populations and Competition | |
| |
| |
| Competitive Hierarchies | |
| |
| |
| Quantifying Competition | |
| |
| |
| Experimental Methods for Studying Competition | |
| |
| |
| Greenhouse and Garden Experiments | |
| |
| |
| The Implications of How Competition is Measured | |
| |
| |
| Field Experiments | |
| |
| |
| Mechanisms of Interspecific Competition | |
| |
| |
| Resource-Based Competition | |
| |
| |
| Trade-Offs and Strategies | |
| |
| |
| Allelopathy | |
| |
| |
| Modeling Competition | |
| |
| |
| Two Equilibrium Approaches | |
| |
| |
| Patch-Based and Nonequilibrium Models | |
| |
| |
| Effects of Competition on Community Composition | |
| |
| |
| Competition along Environmental Gradients | |
| |
| |
| Conceptual Models of Competition in Habitats with Differing Productivities | |
| |
| |
| Experimental Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Evidence from Research Syntheses | |
| |
| |
| Resolution of Differing Results | |
| |
| |
| Herbivory and Plant-Pathogen Interactions | |
| |
| |
| Herbivory at the Level of Individuals | |
| |
| |
| Herbivory and Plant Populations | |
| |
| |
| Herbivory and Spatial Distribution of Plants | |
| |
| |
| Granivory | |
| |
| |
| Biological Control | |
| |
| |
| Effects of Herbivory at the Community Level | |
| |
| |
| Consequences of Herbivore Behavior | |
| |
| |
| Introduced and Domesticated Herbivores | |
| |
| |
| Effects of Native Herbivores | |
| |
| |
| Generality | |
| |
| |
| Plant Defenses | |
| |
| |
| Plant Physical Defenses | |
| |
| |
| Plant Secondary Chemistry | |
| |
| |
| Constitutive versus Induced Defenses | |
| |
| |
| Evolutionary Consequences of Plant-Herbivore Interactions | |
| |
| |
| Pathogens | |
| |
| |
| Responses of Individual Plants to Infection | |
| |
| |
| More Complex Interactions | |
| |
| |
| Community Properties | |
| |
| |
| What Is a Community? | |
| |
| |
| Communities, Taxa, Guilds, and Functional Groups | |
| |
| |
| The History of a Controversy | |
| |
| |
| A Modern Perspective on the Issues in Contention | |
| |
| |
| Are Communities Real? | |
| |
| |
| A Deeper Look at Some Definitions: Abiotic Factors and Emergent Properties | |
| |
| |
| Describing Communities | |
| |
| |
| Species Richness | |
| |
| |
| Diversity, Evenness, and Dominance | |
| |
| |
| Sampling Methods and Parameters for Describing Community Composition | |
| |
| |
| Physiognomy | |
| |
| |
| Long-Term Studies | |
| |
| |
| The Long-Term Ecological Research Network | |
| |
| |
| Disturbance and Succession | |
| |
| |
| Theories of the Causes of Succession | |
| |
| |
| Disturbance | |
| |
| |
| Gaps | |
| |
| |
| Fire | |
| |
| |
| Wind | |
| |
| |
| Water | |
| |
| |
| Animals | |
| |
| |
| Earthquakes and Volcanoes | |
| |
| |
| Disease | |
| |
| |
| Humans | |
| |
| |
| Colonization | |
| |
| |
| Determining the Nature of Succession | |
| |
| |
| Interaction between Methodology and Understanding | |
| |
| |
| Mechanisms Responsible for Successional Change | |
| |
| |
| The Predictability of Succession | |
| |
| |
| Primary Succession | |
| |
| |
| Climax Revisited | |
| |
| |
| Local Abundance, Diversity, and Rarity | |
| |
| |
| Dominance | |
| |
| |
| Are Dominant Species Competitively Superior? | |
| |
| |
| Abundance Curves | |
| |
| |
| Rarity and Commonness | |
| |
| |
| The Nature of Rarity | |
| |
| |
| Patterns of Rarity and Commonness | |
| |
| |
| Causes of Rarity and Commonness | |
| |
| |
| Invasive Species and Community Susceptibility | |
| |
| |
| Why Do Some Species Become Invasive? | |
| |
| |
| What Makes a Community Susceptible to Invasion? | |
| |
| |
| Abundance and Community Structure | |
| |
| |
| Productivity and Diversity | |
| |
| |
| Niche Differentiation, Environmental Heterogeneity, and Diversity | |
| |
| |
| Gaps, Disturbance, and Diversity | |
| |
| |
| Effects of Increasing Diversity | |
| |
| |
| Testing the Effects of Diversity on Ecosystems | |
| |
| |
| Diversity and Stability | |
| |
| |
| Regional Processes | |
| |
| |
| From Ecosystems to Landscapes | |
| |
| |
| Ecosystem Processes | |
| |
| |
| Biogeochemical Cycles: Quantifying Pools and Fluxes | |
| |
| |
| The Global Water Cycle | |
| |
| |
| Carbon in Ecosystems | |
| |
| |
| Decomposition and Soil Food Webs | |
| |
| |
| Productivity | |
| |
| |
| Methods for Estimating Productivity | |
| |
| |
| Carbon Storage | |
| |
| |
| Models of Ecosystem Carbon Cycles | |
| |
| |
| Nitrogen and the Nitrogen Cycle at Ecosystem and Global Levels | |
| |
| |
| Nitrogen Fixation | |
| |
| |
| Other Sources of Nitrogen Input to Living Organisms | |
| |
| |
| Nitrogen Mineralization | |
| |
| |
| Denitrification and Leaching of Nitrogen | |
| |
| |
| Decomposition Rates and Nitrogen Immobilization | |
| |
| |
| Plant Uptake of Nitrogen | |
| |
| |
| Phosphorus in Terrestrial Ecosystems | |
| |
| |
| Ecosystem Nutrient Cycling and Plant Diversity | |
| |
| |
| Serpentine Soils | |
| |
| |
| Ecosystem Processes for Some Other Elements | |
| |
| |
| Sulfur | |
| |
| |
| Calcium | |
| |
| |
| Communities in Landscapes | |
| |
| |
| Comparing Communities | |
| |
| |
| Non-numerical Techniques | |
| |
| |
| Univariate Techniques | |
| |
| |
| Multivariate Techniques | |
| |
| |
| Landscape Patterns | |
| |
| |
| Ordination: Describing Patterns | |
| |
| |
| Determining Causes of Patterns | |
| |
| |
| Types of Data | |
| |
| |
| Classification | |
| |
| |
| Views on Continuous versus Discrete Landscapes | |
| |
| |
| Differentiating Vegetation Based on Spectral Quality | |
| |
| |
| Landscape Diversity | |
| |
| |
| Differentiation Diversity | |
| |
| |
| Pattern Diversity | |
| |
| |
| Landscape Ecology | |
| |
| |
| Spatial Patterns | |
| |
| |
| Defining Patches | |
| |
| |
| Quantifying Patch Characteristics and Interrelationships | |
| |
| |
| Scale | |
| |
| |
| Definitions and Concepts | |
| |
| |
| Spatial and Ecological Scale | |
| |
| |
| Quantifying Aspects of Spatial Pattern and Scale | |
| |
| |
| Toward a Theoretical Basis for Landscape Patterns: Island Biogeography Theory | |
| |
| |
| Metapopulation Theory | |
| |
| |
| Metapopulation Models | |
| |
| |
| Metapopulation Patterns | |
| |
| |
| Landscape Ecology and Conservation | |
| |
| |
| Reserve Design | |
| |
| |
| Fragmentation | |
| |
| |
| Edges, Connectivity, and Nestedness | |
| |
| |
| Global Patterns and Processes | |
| |
| |
| Climate and Physiognomy | |
| |
| |
| Climate and Weather | |
| |
| |
| Temperature | |
| |
| |
| Short-Term Variation in Radiation and Temperature | |
| |
| |
| Long-Term Cycles | |
| |
| |
| Precipitation | |
| |
| |
| Global Patterns | |
| |
| |
| The Coriolis Effect | |
| |
| |
| Continental-Scale Patterns | |
| |
| |
| Seasonal Variation in Precipitation | |
| |
| |
| The El Nino Southern Oscillation | |
| |
| |
| Predictability and Long-Term Change | |
| |
| |
| Plant Physiognomy across the Globe | |
| |
| |
| Forests | |
| |
| |
| Tree Line | |
| |
| |
| Grasslands and Woodlands | |
| |
| |
| Shrublands and Deserts | |
| |
| |
| Biomes | |
| |
| |
| Categorizing Vegetation | |
| |
| |
| Moist Tropical Forests | |
| |
| |
| Tropical Rainforest | |
| |
| |
| Tropical Montane Forest | |
| |
| |
| Seasonal Tropical Forests and Woodlands | |
| |
| |
| Tropical Deciduous Forest | |
| |
| |
| Thorn Forest | |
| |
| |
| Tropical Woodland | |
| |
| |
| Temperate Deciduous Forest | |
| |
| |
| Other Temperate Forests and Woodlands | |
| |
| |
| Temperate Rainforest | |
| |
| |
| Temperate Evergreen Forest | |
| |
| |
| Temperate Woodland | |
| |
| |
| Taiga | |
| |
| |
| Temperate Shrubland | |
| |
| |
| Grasslands | |
| |
| |
| Temperate Grassland | |
| |
| |
| Tropical Savanna | |
| |
| |
| Deserts | |
| |
| |
| Hot Desert | |
| |
| |
| Cold Desert | |
| |
| |
| Alpine and Arctic Vegetation | |
| |
| |
| Grassland and Shrubland | |
| |
| |
| Tundra | |
| |
| |
| Regional and Global Diversity | |
| |
| |
| Large-Scale Patterns of Diversity | |
| |
| |
| Levels of Explanation | |
| |
| |
| Explanations for Latitudinal Gradients | |
| |
| |
| Continental Differences | |
| |
| |
| Other Geographic Patterns | |
| |
| |
| Species Diversity and Patterns of Overlap | |
| |
| |
| Endemism, Centers of Diversification, and Isolation | |
| |
| |
| Relationships between Regional and Local Diversity | |
| |
| |
| The Fynbos and the Cape Region of South Africa | |
| |
| |
| Productivity and Scale | |
| |
| |
| Paleoecology | |
| |
| |
| The Paleozoic Era | |
| |
| |
| The Mesozoic Era | |
| |
| |
| The Dominance of Gymnosperms | |
| |
| |
| The Breakup of Pangaea and the Rise of the Angiosperms | |
| |
| |
| The Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) Boundary | |
| |
| |
| The Cenozoic Era | |
| |
| |
| Paleoecology Methods | |
| |
| |
| The Recent Past | |
| |
| |
| At the Glacial Maximum | |
| |
| |
| Glacial Retreat | |
| |
| |
| Climate Fluctuations in the Recent Past | |
| |
| |
| Global Change: Humans and Plants | |
| |
| |
| Carbon and Plant-Atmosphere Interactions | |
| |
| |
| The Global Carbon Cycle | |
| |
| |
| Direct Effects of Increasing CO[subscript 2] on Plants | |
| |
| |
| Anthropogenic Global Climate Change | |
| |
| |
| The Greenhouse Effect | |
| |
| |
| Global Climate Change: Evidence | |
| |
| |
| Global Climate Change: Predictions | |
| |
| |
| Modeling Climate | |
| |
| |
| Biotic Consequences of Climate Change | |
| |
| |
| Anthropogenic Effects on the Global Carbon Cycle | |
| |
| |
| Deforestation | |
| |
| |
| Fossil Fuel Combustion | |
| |
| |
| Daily Human Activities and CO[subscript 2] Generation | |
| |
| |
| Acid Precipitation and Nitrogen Deposition | |
| |
| |
| Declining Global Biodiversity and Its Causes | |
| |
| |
| Habitat Fragmentation and Loss | |
| |
| |
| Invasive Species and Other Threats to Biodiversity | |
| |
| |
| Human Populations and Land Use Patterns | |
| |
| |
| A Ray of Hope? | |
| |
| |
| A Statistics Primer | |
| |
| |
| Data Description | |
| |
| |
| Estimating Accuracy | |
| |
| |
| Using and Reporting Statistics | |
| |
| |
| Photo Credits | |
| |
| |
| Glossary | |
| |
| |
| Literature Cited | |
| |
| |
| Index | |