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| Foreword | |
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| Preface | |
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| Acknowledgments | |
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| Getting Started | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Microsystems vs. MEMS | |
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| What are they? | |
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| How are they made? | |
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| What are they made of? | |
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| How are they designed? | |
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| Markets for Microsystems and MEMS | |
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| Case Studies | |
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| Looking Ahead | |
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| An Approach to MEMS Design | |
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| Design: The Big Picture | |
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| Device Categories | |
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| High-Level Design Issues | |
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| The Design Process | |
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| Modeling Levels | |
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| Analytical or Numerical? | |
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| A Closer Look | |
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| Example: A Position-Control System | |
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| Going Forward From Here | |
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| Microfabrication | |
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| Overview | |
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| Wafer-Level Processes | |
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| Substrates | |
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| Wafer Cleaning | |
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| Oxidation of Silicon | |
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| Local Oxidation | |
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| Doping | |
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| Thin-Film Deposition | |
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| Wafer Bonding | |
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| Pattern Transfer | |
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| Optical Lithography | |
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| Design Rules | |
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| Mask Making | |
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| Wet Etching | |
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| Dry Etching | |
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| Additive Processes: Lift-Off | |
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| Planarization | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Process Integration | |
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| Developing a Process | |
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| A Simple Process Flow | |
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| The Self-Aligned Gate: A Paradigm-Shifting Process | |
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| Basic Principles of Process Design | |
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| From Shape to Process and Back Again | |
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| Process Design Issues | |
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| Sample Process Flows | |
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| A Bulk-Micromachined Diaphragm Pressure Sensor | |
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| A Surface-Micromachined Suspended Filament | |
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| Moving On | |
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| Modeling Strategies | |
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| Lumped Modeling | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Conjugate Power Variables | |
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| One-Port Elements | |
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| Ports | |
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| The Variable-Assignment Conventions | |
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| One-Port Source Elements | |
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| One-Port Circuit Elements | |
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| Circuit Connections in the e [right arrow] V Convention | |
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| Kirchhoff's Laws | |
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| Formulation of Dynamic Equations | |
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| Complex Impedances | |
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| State Equations | |
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| Transformers and Gyrators | |
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| Impedance Transformations | |
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| The Electrical Inductor | |
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| Energy-Conserving Transducers | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Parallel-Plate Capacitor | |
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| Charging the Capacitor at Fixed Gap | |
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| Charging the Capacitor at Zero Gap, then Lifting | |
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| The Two-Port Capacitor | |
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| Electrostatic Actuator | |
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| Charge Control | |
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| Voltage Control | |
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| Pull-In | |
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| Adding Dynamics to the Actuator Model | |
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| The Magnetic Actuator | |
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| Equivalent Circuits for Linear Transducers | |
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| The Position Control System--Revisited | |
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| Dynamics | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Linear System Dynamics | |
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| Direct Integration | |
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| System Functions | |
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| Fourier Transform | |
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| Sinusoidal Steady State | |
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| Eigenfunction Analysis | |
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| Nonlinear Dynamics | |
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| Fixed Points of Nonlinear Systems | |
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| Linearization About an Operating Point | |
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| Linearization of the Electrostatic Actuator | |
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| Transducer Model for the Linearized Actuator | |
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| Direct Integration of State Equations | |
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| Resonators and Oscillators | |
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| And Then There's Chaos... | |
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| Domain-Specific Details | |
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| Elasticity | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Constitutive Equations of Linear Elasticity | |
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| Stress | |
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| Strain | |
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| Elastic Constants for Isotropic Materials | |
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| Other Elastic Constants | |
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| Isotropic Elasticity in Three Dimensions | |
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| Plane Stress | |
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| Elastic Constants for Anisotropic Materials | |
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| Thermal Expansion and Thin-Film Stress | |
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| Other Sources of Residual Thin-Film Stress | |
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| Selected Mechanical Property Data | |
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| Material Behavior at Large Strains | |
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| Plastic Deformation | |
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| Structures | |
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| Overview | |
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| Axially Loaded Beams | |
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| Beams With Varying Cross-section | |
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| Statically Indeterminate Beams | |
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| Stresses on Inclined Sections | |
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| Bending of Beams | |
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| Types of Support | |
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| Types of Loads | |
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| Reaction Forces and Moments | |
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| Pure Bending of a Transversely Loaded Beam | |
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| Differential Equation for Beam Bending | |
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| Elementary Solutions of the Beam Equation | |
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| Anticlastic Curvature | |
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| Bending of Plates | |
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| Plate in Pure Bending | |
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| Effects of Residual Stresses and Stress Gradients | |
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| Stress Gradients in Cantilevers | |
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| Residual Stresses in Doubly-Supported Beams | |
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| Buckling of Beams | |
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| Plates With In-Plane Stress | |
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| What about large deflections? | |
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| Energy Methods | |
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| Elastic Energy | |
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| The Principle of Virtual Work | |
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| Variational Methods | |
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| Properties of the Variational Solution | |
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| Large Deflections of Elastic Structures | |
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| A Center-Loaded Doubly-Clamped Beam | |
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| Combining Variational Results with Simulations | |
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| The Uniformly Loaded Doubly-Clamped Beam | |
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| Residual Stress in Clamped Structures | |
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| Elastic Energy in Plates and Membranes | |
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| Uniformly Loaded Plates and Membranes | |
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| Membrane Load-Deflection Behavior | |
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| Rayleigh-Ritz Methods | |
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| Estimating Resonant Frequencies | |
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| Extracting Lumped-Element Masses | |
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| Dissipation and the Thermal Energy Domain | |
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| Dissipation is Everywhere | |
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| Electrical Resistance | |
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| Charging a Capacitor | |
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| Dissipative Processes | |
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| The Thermal Energy Domain | |
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| The Heat-Flow Equation | |
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| Basic Thermodynamic Ideas | |
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| Lumped Modeling in the Thermal Domain | |
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| Self-Heating of a Resistor | |
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| Temperature Coefficient of Resistance | |
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| Current-source drive | |
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| Voltage-source drive | |
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| A Self-Heated Silicon Resistor | |
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| Other Dissipation Mechanisms | |
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| Contact Friction | |
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| Dielectric losses | |
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| Viscoelastic losses | |
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| Magnetic Losses | |
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| Diffusion | |
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| Irreversible Thermodynamics: Coupled Flows | |
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| Thermoelectric Power and Thermocouples | |
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| Thermoelectric Heating and Cooling | |
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| Other Coupled-Flow Problems | |
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| Modeling Time-Dependent Dissipative Processes | |
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| Lumped Modeling of Dissipative Processes | |
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| Overview | |
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| The Generalized Heat-Flow Equation | |
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| The DC Steady State: The Poisson Equation | |
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| Finite-Difference Solution of the Poisson Equation | |
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| Temperature Distribution in a Self-Heated Resistor | |
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| Eigenfunction Solution of the Poisson Equation | |
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| Transient Response: Finite-Difference Approach | |
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| Transient Response: Eigenfunction Method | |
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| One-Dimensional Example | |
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| Equivalent Circuit for a Single Mode | |
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| Equivalent Circuit Including All Modes | |
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| Fluids | |
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| What Makes Fluids Difficult? | |
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| Basic Fluid Concepts | |
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| Viscosity | |
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| Thermophysical Properties | |
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| Surface Tension | |
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| Conservation of Mass | |
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| Time Rate of Change of Momentum | |
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| The Navier-Stokes Equation | |
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| Energy Conservation | |
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| Reynolds Number and Mach Number | |
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| Incompressible Laminar Flow | |
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| Couette Flow | |
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| Poiseuille Flow | |
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| Development Lengths and Boundary Layers | |
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| Stokes Flow | |
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| Squeezed-Film Damping | |
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| Rigid Parallel-Plate Small-Amplitude Motion | |
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| Electrolytes and Electrokinetic Effects | |
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| Ionic Double Layers | |
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| Electroosmotic Flow | |
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| Electrophoresis | |
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| Diffusion Effects | |
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| Pressure Effects | |
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| Mixing | |
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| Modeling of Electrokinetic Systems | |
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| Circuit and System Issues | |
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| Electronics | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Elements of Semiconductor Physics | |
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| Equilibrium Carrier Concentrations | |
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| Excess Carriers | |
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| The Semiconductor Diode | |
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| The Diffused Resistor | |
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| The Photodiode | |
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| The Bipolar Junction Transistor | |
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| The MOSFET | |
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| Large-Signal Characteristics of the MOSFET | |
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| MOSFET Capacitances | |
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| Small-Signal Model of the MOSFET | |
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| MOSFET Amplifiers | |
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| The CMOS Inverter | |
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| Large-Signal Switching Speed | |
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| The Linear-Gain Region | |
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| Other Amplifier Configurations | |
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| Operational Amplifiers | |
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| Dynamic Effects | |
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| Basic Op-Amp Circuits | |
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| Inverting Amplifier | |
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| Short Method for Analyzing Op-Amp Circuits | |
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| Noninverting Amplifier | |
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| Transimpedance Amplifier | |
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| Integrator | |
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| Differentiator | |
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| Charge-Measuring Circuits | |
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| Differential Charge Measurement | |
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| Switched-Capacitor Circuits | |
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| Feedback Systems | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Basic Feedback Concepts | |
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| Feedback in Linear Systems | |
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| Feedback Amplifiers | |
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| Example: The Position Controller | |
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| PID Control | |
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| The Effect of Amplifier Bandwidth | |
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| Phase Margin | |
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| Noise and Disturbances | |
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| Stabilization of Unstable Systems | |
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| Controllability and Observability Revisited | |
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| Feedback in Nonlinear Systems | |
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| Quasi-static Nonlinear Feedback Systems | |
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| Resonators and Oscillators | |
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| Simulink Model | |
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| The (Almost) Sinusoidal Oscillator | |
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| Relaxation Oscillation | |
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| Noise | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Interference Problem | |
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| Shields | |
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| Ground Loops | |
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| Guards | |
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| Characterization of Signals | |
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| Amplitude-Modulated Signals | |
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| Characterization of Random Noise | |
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| Mean-Square and Root-Mean-Square Noise | |
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| Addition of Uncorrelated Sources | |
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| Signal-to-Noise Ratio | |
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| Spectral Density Function | |
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| Noise in Linear Systems | |
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| Noise Sources | |
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| Thermal Noise | |
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| Noise Bandwidth | |
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| Shot Noise | |
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| Flicker Noise | |
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| Amplifier Noise | |
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| Example: A Resistance Thermometer | |
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| Using a DC source | |
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| Modulation of an AC Carrier | |
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| Caution: Modulation Does Not Always Work | |
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| Drifts | |
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| Case Studies | |
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| Packaging | |
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| Introduction to the Case Studies | |
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| Packaging, Test, and Calibration | |
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| An Approach to Packaging | |
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| A Commercial Pressure-Sensor Case Study | |
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| Device Concept | |
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| System Partitioning | |
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| Interfaces | |
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| Details | |
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| A Final Comment | |
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| A Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor | |
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| Sensing Pressure | |
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| Piezoresistance | |
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| Analytic Formulation in Cubic Materials | |
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| Longitudinal and Transverse Piezoresistance | |
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| Piezoresistive Coefficients of Silicon | |
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| Structural Examples | |
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| Averaging over Stress and Doping Variations | |
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| A Numerical Example | |
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| The Motorola MAP Sensor | |
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| Process Flow | |
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| Details of the Diaphragm and Piezoresistor | |
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| Stress Analysis | |
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| Signal-Conditioning and Calibration | |
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| Device Noise | |
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| Recent Design Changes | |
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| Higher-Order Effects | |
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| A Capacitive Accelerometer | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Fundamentals of Quasi-Static Accelerometers | |
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| Position Measurement With Capacitance | |
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| Circuits for Capacitance Measurement | |
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| Demodulation Methods | |
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| Chopper-Stabilized Amplifiers | |
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| Correlated Double Sampling | |
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| Signal-to-Noise Issues | |
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| A Capacitive Accelerometer Case Study | |
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| Specifications | |
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| Sensor Design and Modeling | |
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| Fabrication and Packaging | |
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| Noise and Accuracy | |
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| Position Measurement With Tunneling Tips | |
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| Electrostatic Projection Displays | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Electromechanics of the DMD Device | |
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| Electrode Structure | |
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| Torsional Pull-in | |
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| Electromechanics of Electrostatically Actuated Beams | |
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| M-Test | |
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| The Grating-Light-Valve Display | |
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| Diffraction Theory | |
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| Device Fabrication and Packaging | |
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| Quantitative Estimates of GLV Device Performance | |
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| A Comparison | |
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| A Piezoelectric Rate Gyroscope | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Kinematics of Rotation | |
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| The Coriolis Rate Gyroscope | |
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| Sinusoidal Response Function | |
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| Steady Rotation | |
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| Response to Angular Accelerations | |
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| Generalized Gyroscopic Modes | |
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| Piezoelectricity | |
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| The Origin of Piezoelectricity | |
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| Analytical Formulation of Piezoelectricity | |
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| Piezoelectric Materials | |
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| Piezoelectric Actuation | |
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| Sensing with Piezoelectricity | |
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| A Quartz Rate Gyroscope Case Study | |
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| Electrode Structures | |
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| Lumped-Element Modeling of Piezoelectric Devices | |
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| QRS Specifications and Performance | |
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| A Quantitative Device Model | |
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| The Drive Mode | |
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| Sense-Mode Displacement of the Drive Tines | |
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| Coupling to the Sense Tines | |
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| Noise and Accuracy Considerations | |
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| Closing Comments | |
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| Dna Amplification | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) | |
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| Elements of PCR | |
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| Specifications for a PCR System | |
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| Microsystem Approaches to PCR | |
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| Batch System | |
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| PCR Flow System | |
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| Thermal Model of the Batch Reactor | |
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| Control Circuit and Transient Behavior | |
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| Thermal Model of the Continuous Flow Reactor | |
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| A Comparison | |
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| A Microbridge Gas Sensor | |
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| Overview | |
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| System-Level Issues | |
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| First-Order Device and System Models | |
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| Filament Characteristics | |
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| Resistance-Control System | |
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| A Practical Device and Fabrication Process | |
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| Creating the Filament | |
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| High-Temperature Bond Pads | |
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| Catalyst Coating | |
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| Sensor Performance | |
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| Demonstration of Hydrogen Detection | |
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| Mass-Transport-Limited Operation | |
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| Reaction-Rate-Limited Operation | |
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| Advanced Modeling | |
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| Epilogue | |
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| Appendices | |
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| Glossary of Notation | |
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| Electromagnetic Fields | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Quasistatic Fields | |
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| Elementary Laws | |
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| Electroquasistatic Systems | |
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| Magnetoquasistatic Systems | |
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| Elastic Constants in Cubic Material | |
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| References | |
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| Index | |