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| Introduction: Learning to Change | |
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| Natural Selection | |
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| Box: The Face of Change | |
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| Reflexes | |
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| Fixed Action Patterns | |
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| General Behavior Traits | |
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| The Limits of Natural Selection | |
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| Learning: Evolved Modifiability | |
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| Nature and Nature | |
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| Box: The Superior Animal | |
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| The Study of Learning and Behavior | |
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| Learning Defined | |
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| Learning Means Change | |
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| What Changes Is Behavior | |
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| Box: Defining Operations | |
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| What Changes Behavior Is Experience | |
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| Measuring Learning | |
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| Research Designs | |
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| Anecdotal Evidence | |
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| Case Studies | |
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| Descriptive Studies | |
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| Experimental Studies | |
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| Limitations of Experimental Research | |
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| Animal Research and Human Learning | |
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| Reasons for Animal Research | |
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| Objections to Animal Research | |
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| Questions About Learning | |
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| Pavlovian Conditioning | |
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| Box: Ivan Pavlov: An Experimenter from Head to Foot | |
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| Basic Procedures | |
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| Box: What's What in Pavlovian Conditioning? | |
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| Higher-Order Conditioning | |
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| Measuring Pavlovian Learning | |
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| Variables Affecting Pavlovian Conditioning | |
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| Pairing CS and US | |
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| Box: Pavlovian Flowchart | |
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| CS-US Contingency | |
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| CS-US Contiguity | |
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| Stimulus Features | |
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| Prior Experience with CS and US | |
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| Number of CS-US Pairings | |
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| Intertrial Interval | |
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| Other Variables | |
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| Extinction of Conditional Responses | |
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| Box: Edwin B. Twitmyer and What Might Have Been | |
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| Theories of Conditioning | |
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| Stimulus Substitution Theory | |
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| Preparatory Response Theory | |
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| Box: Conditioning and Awareness | |
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| Pavlovian Applications | |
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| Fear | |
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| Box: Thank You, Albert | |
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| Box: What Rats Can Teach Us About Fear | |
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| Prejudice | |
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| Advertising | |
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| Box: Bite Your Tongue! | |
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| The Paraphilias | |
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| Taste Aversions | |
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| Box: Changing the Coyote's Menu | |
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| Immune Function | |
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| Operant Reinforcement | |
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| Box: E. L. Thorndike: What the Occasion Demanded | |
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| Basic Procedures | |
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| Box: B. F. Skinner: The Darwin of Behavior Science | |
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| Discrete Trial and Free Operant Procedures | |
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| Operant and Pavlovian Learning Compared | |
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| Primary and Secondary Reinforcers | |
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| Shaping and Chaining | |
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| Box: Tips for Shapers | |
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| Variables Affecting Reinforcement | |
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| Contingency | |
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| Contiguity | |
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| Reinforcer Characteristics | |
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| Task Characteristics | |
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| Deprivation Level | |
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| Box: Octopi Individuality | |
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| Other Variables | |
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| Extinction of Reinforced Behavior | |
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| Theories of Reinforcement | |
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| Hull's Drive-Reduction Theory | |
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| Relative Value Theory and the Premack Principle | |
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| Response Deprivation Theory | |
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| Theories of Avoidance | |
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| Two-Process Theory | |
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| One-Process Theory | |
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| Operant Punishment | |
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| Basic Procedures | |
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| Box: Aversive Confusion: Positive Punishment and Negative Reinforcement Compared | |
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| Variables Affecting Punishment | |
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| Contingency | |
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| Contiguity | |
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| Punisher Intensity | |
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| Introductory Level of Punishment | |
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| Reinforcement of the Punished Behavior | |
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| Alternative Sources of Reinforcement | |
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| Deprivation Level | |
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| Other Variables | |
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| Theories of Punishment | |
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| Two-Process Theory | |
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| One-Process Theory | |
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| Problems with Punishment | |
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| Escape | |
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| Aggression | |
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| Apathy | |
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| Abuse | |
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| Imitation of the Punisher | |
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| Alternatives to Punishment | |
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| Response Prevention | |
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| Extinction | |
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| Differential Reinforcement | |
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| Noncontingent Reinforcement | |
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| Operant Applications | |
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| Animal Care and Training | |
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| Box: Reinforcement Goes to the Dogs | |
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| Self-Awareness | |
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| Box: The Shaping of Awareness | |
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| Self-Control | |
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| Verbal Behavior | |
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| Box: Rewarding Lies | |
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| Insightful Problem Solving | |
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| Creativity | |
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| Superstition | |
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| Box: Quick! Get Some Mud! | |
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| Learned Helplessness | |
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| Delusions and Hallucinations | |
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| Self-Injurious Behavior | |
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| Vicarious Learning | |
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| Basic Procedures | |
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| Vicarious Pavlovian Conditioning | |
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| Vicarious Operant Learning | |
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| Vicarious Learning Versus Imitation | |
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| Generalized Imitation | |
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| Variables Affecting Vicarious Learning | |
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| Consequences of the Model's Behavior | |
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| Consequences of the Observer's Behavior | |
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| Characteristics of the Model | |
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| Box: Vicarious Learning and Human Nature | |
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| Observer's Age | |
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| Observer's Learning History | |
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| Box: The Venus Effect or, How Can I Learn Anything When You Look at Me with Those Big Brown Eyes? | |
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| Other Variables | |
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| Theories of Vicarious Learning | |
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| Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory | |
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| Miller-Dollard Reinforcement Theory | |
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| Applications of Vicarious Learning | |
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| Foraging | |
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| Crime and Television | |
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| Therapy for Phobia | |
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| Generalization, Discrimination, and Stimulus Control | |
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| Generalization | |
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| Generalization Gradients | |
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| Semantic Generalization | |
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| Box: Generalized Therapy | |
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| Generalization Following Extinction and Punishment | |
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| Discrimination | |
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| Discrimination Training | |
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| Box: Worlds Apart: Punks and Skinheads | |
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| Box: Lessons from Lepers | |
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| Successive, Simultaneous, and MTS Procedures | |
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| Errorless Discrimination Training | |
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| Differential Outcomes Effect | |
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| Stimulus Control | |
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| Box: Stimulus Control and Adaptation | |
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| Theories of Generalization and Discrimination | |
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| Pavlov's Theory | |
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| Spence's Theory | |
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| The Lashley-Wade Theory | |
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| Applications of Generalization and Discrimination | |
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| Concept Formation | |
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| Mental Rotation | |
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| Smoking Relapse | |
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| Experimental Neuroses | |
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| Schedules of Reinforcement | |
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| Simple Schedules | |
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| Continuous Reinforcement | |
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| Fixed Ratio Schedules | |
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| Variable Ratio Schedules | |
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| Box: VR Harassment | |
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| Fixed Interval Schedules | |
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| Variable Interval Schedules | |
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| Other Simple Schedules | |
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| Stretching the Ratio | |
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| Extinction | |
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| Intermittent Reinforcement and the PRE | |
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| Discrimination Hypothesis | |
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| Frustration Hypothesis | |
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| Sequential Hypothesis | |
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| Response Unit Hypothesis | |
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| Complex Schedules | |
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| Choice and the Matching Law | |
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| Box: Ghetto Choice | |
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| Applications of Schedules | |
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| Compulsive Gambling | |
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| Experimental Economics | |
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| Malingering | |
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| The Importance of Schedules Research | |
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| Forgetting | |
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| Defining Forgetting | |
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| Measuring Forgetting | |
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| Box: The Myth of Permanent Memory | |
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| Variables in Forgetting | |
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| Degree of Learning | |
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| Prior Learning | |
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| Subsequent Learning | |
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| Context | |
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| Box: Reminiscence and the State of Learning | |
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| Applied Research on Forgetting | |
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| Foraging | |
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| Eyewitness Testimony | |
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| Learning to Remember | |
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| Box: Say All Fast Minute Each Day Shuffle | |
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| Overlearn | |
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| Use Mnemonics | |
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| Try a Mnemonic System | |
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| Use Context Cues | |
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| Use Prompts | |
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| Box: The Man Who Couldn't Forget | |
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| A Final Word on Forgetting | |
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| The Limits of Learning | |
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| Physical Characteristics | |
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| Nonheritability of Learned Behavior | |
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| Heredity and Learning Ability | |
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| Neurological Damage and Learning | |
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| Box: Recipe for Genius | |
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| Critical Periods | |
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| Preparedness and Learning | |
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| Box: Learning and Humanity | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Glossary | |
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| References | |
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| Author Index | |
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| Subject Index | |