| |
| |
Preface | |
| |
| |
| |
Research and Criminal Justice | |
| |
| |
Research in Everyday Life | |
| |
| |
Criminal Investigation and Scientific Research | |
| |
| |
Basic and Applied Research | |
| |
| |
Quantitative and Qualitative Research | |
| |
| |
Evaluation Research | |
| |
| |
Prediction Research | |
| |
| |
In-House, Hired-Hand, and Third-Party Research | |
| |
| |
Research in Criminal Justice: An Illustration | |
| |
| |
Review Questions | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
Perspectives and Research | |
| |
| |
What Is a Perspective? | |
| |
| |
Different Kinds of Language | |
| |
| |
Principles of a Scientific Perspective | |
| |
| |
Empiricism | |
| |
| |
Objectivity | |
| |
| |
Tentativeness | |
| |
| |
Skepticism | |
| |
| |
Ethical Neutrality | |
| |
| |
Parsimony | |
| |
| |
Determinism | |
| |
| |
Publication | |
| |
| |
Replication | |
| |
| |
Social Science as Science | |
| |
| |
An Example of a Social Science Perspective: Symbolic Interactionism | |
| |
| |
Other Perspectives in Criminal Justice Studies | |
| |
| |
Theory | |
| |
| |
Scope | |
| |
| |
Integration | |
| |
| |
Verification | |
| |
| |
Relationships Among Theory, Research, and Methodology | |
| |
| |
Research Ethics | |
| |
| |
Anonymity and Confidentiality | |
| |
| |
Risk and Voluntary Informed Consent | |
| |
| |
Deception in Research | |
| |
| |
Sharing Results and Benefits with Research Participants | |
| |
| |
Research Ethics and Other Standards of Fairness | |
| |
| |
Responsibility to Scientific Community | |
| |
| |
Current Critiques of the Scientific Perspective | |
| |
| |
Review Questions | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
An Introduction to Research Methodology and Design | |
| |
| |
Choosing a Research Topic | |
| |
| |
Identifying Units of Analysis | |
| |
| |
Defining Concepts and Variables | |
| |
| |
Types of Definitions | |
| |
| |
Variables | |
| |
| |
Validity, Reliability, and Precision in Categorizations and Measurements | |
| |
| |
Validity | |
| |
| |
Reliability | |
| |
| |
Precision | |
| |
| |
Choosing a Research Design | |
| |
| |
Exploratory Research | |
| |
| |
Descriptive Research | |
| |
| |
Explanatory Research | |
| |
| |
Internal and External Threats to the Validity of Research Results | |
| |
| |
Triangulation | |
| |
| |
A Final Note About the Research Process | |
| |
| |
Review Questions | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
Sampling | |
| |
| |
Probability Sampling | |
| |
| |
Random Sampling | |
| |
| |
Stratified Random Sampling and Proportionate Sampling | |
| |
| |
Disproportionate Sampling | |
| |
| |
Systematic Sampling | |
| |
| |
Cluster Sampling | |
| |
| |
Multistage Sampling | |
| |
| |
Nonprobability Sampling | |
| |
| |
Sample Size | |
| |
| |
Determining the Population to Be Sampled | |
| |
| |
Review Questions | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
Research Tools and Techniques: Survey Research Through Questionnaires and Interviews | |
| |
| |
Questionnaires | |
| |
| |
Types of Questions | |
| |
| |
Constructing Questionnaires | |
| |
| |
Pretesting Questionnaires | |
| |
| |
Precoding Questionnaires | |
| |
| |
A Sample Questionnaire | |
| |
| |
Increasing Response Rates | |
| |
| |
Interviews | |
| |
| |
Telephone Surveys | |
| |
| |
Internet Surveys | |
| |
| |
Review Questions | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
Research Tools and Techniques: Document Research, Physical Evidence, Observation, and Experimentation | |
| |
| |
Document Research | |
| |
| |
Content Analysis | |
| |
| |
Observation | |
| |
| |
Recording and Coding | |
| |
| |
Accuracy of Observations | |
| |
| |
Physical Evidence | |
| |
| |
Experiments | |
| |
| |
Entering the Field | |
| |
| |
Review Questions | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
An Introduction to Descriptive Statistics | |
| |
| |
Measurement and Scales | |
| |
| |
Continuous and Discrete Variables | |
| |
| |
Levels of Measurement | |
| |
| |
Describing the Data | |
| |
| |
Raw Numbers | |
| |
| |
Percentages | |
| |
| |
Rates | |
| |
| |
Frequency Distributions | |
| |
| |
Measures of Central Tendency | |
| |
| |
The Mean | |
| |
| |
The Median | |
| |
| |
The Mode | |
| |
| |
Selecting Measures of Central Tendency | |
| |
| |
Measures of Dispersion | |
| |
| |
Range | |
| |
| |
Average Deviation | |
| |
| |
Standard Deviation | |
| |
| |
Indicators of Location in a Distribution | |
| |
| |
Distributions: Symmetrical and Otherwise | |
| |
| |
Unimodal and Multimodal Distributions | |
| |
| |
The Normal Distribution and Standard Scores | |
| |
| |
Review Questions | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
Descriptive Statistics: Examining Relationships Between Two or More Variables Through Cross-Tabulation | |
| |
| |
Comparing Frequency Distributions | |
| |
| |
Fundamentals of Cross-Tabulation | |
| |
| |
Constructing a Cross-Tabulation | |
| |
| |
Collapsing Categories | |
| |
| |
Using Percentages in Cross-Tabulation | |
| |
| |
Elaboration Analysis | |
| |
| |
Explanation | |
| |
| |
Interpretation | |
| |
| |
Specification | |
| |
| |
No Apparent Relationship in the Zero-Order Table | |
| |
| |
Some Examples of Elaboration Analysis | |
| |
| |
Review Questions | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
Descriptive Statistics: Measuring Relationships Between Two or More Variables Through Regression and Correlation Analysis | |
| |
| |
Scattergrams | |
| |
| |
Linear and Nonlinear Relationships | |
| |
| |
Regression Analysis | |
| |
| |
Correlation Analysis | |
| |
| |
Multiple and Partial Correlation | |
| |
| |
Correlation and Cross-Tabulation | |
| |
| |
Diagonals | |
| |
| |
Other Statistical Measures of Association | |
| |
| |
Review Questions | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
An Introduction to Inferential Statistics and Parameter Estimation | |
| |
| |
Determining Probabilities Empirically and Mathematically | |
| |
| |
Sampling Distributions and Sampling Error | |
| |
| |
The Binomial Distribution | |
| |
| |
Sampling Distributions for Other Sample Statistics | |
| |
| |
A Few Words About Nonparametric Statistics | |
| |
| |
Point and Interval Estimation | |
| |
| |
Confidence Intervals and Confidence Limits | |
| |
| |
Review Questions | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Note | |
| |
| |
| |
Inferential Statistics: Hypothesis Testing | |
| |
| |
Testing Hypotheses | |
| |
| |
Type I and Type II Error | |
| |
| |
Significance Level | |
| |
| |
One- and Two-Tailed Tests | |
| |
| |
Difference Between Means Test (Student's t) | |
| |
| |
Analysis of Variance (One Way) | |
| |
| |
Assessing Relationships Between Variables in Tables | |
| |
| |
Chi Square | |
| |
| |
Significance Tests for the Correlation Coefficient | |
| |
| |
Some Final Cautions | |
| |
| |
Review Questions | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
Common Errors in Presenting and Interpreting Research Findings | |
| |
| |
The Trappings of Science | |
| |
| |
Scientific Costumes and Props | |
| |
| |
Quoting or Relying on Authorities | |
| |
| |
Using Technical Vocabulary | |
| |
| |
The Many Uses and Misuses of Number | |
| |
| |
Graphs: Their Uses and Misuses | |
| |
| |
Bar Graphs | |
| |
| |
Pie Graphs | |
| |
| |
Pictographs | |
| |
| |
Hazards in Interpreting Graphs | |
| |
| |
Correlation and Causation | |
| |
| |
Hypothesis Testing and Probabilities | |
| |
| |
Review Questions | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Note | |
| |
| |
| |
Preparing and Reading Research Reports | |
| |
| |
The Title | |
| |
| |
Acknowledging Sources of Support | |
| |
| |
The Abstract | |
| |
| |
The Introduction | |
| |
| |
The Literature Review | |
| |
| |
Initiating the Literature Review | |
| |
| |
Completing the Literature Review | |
| |
| |
Referencing | |
| |
| |
Methods | |
| |
| |
Presentation and Analysis of Data | |
| |
| |
The Conclusion | |
| |
| |
The Bibliography or List of References | |
| |
| |
Appendices | |
| |
| |
A Final Note on Research Reports | |
| |
| |
Review Questions | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Note | |
| |
| |
| |
Computers in Criminal Justice Research | |
| |
| |
Components of the Computer | |
| |
| |
Preparing Data for Computer Analysis | |
| |
| |
Current Computer Applications in Criminal Justice | |
| |
| |
Limitations of Computers | |
| |
| |
The Internet and Scientific Research | |
| |
| |
Review Questions | |
| |
| |
Exercises | |
| |
| |
Notes | |
| |
| |
| |
Conclusions | |
| |
| |
| |
Table of Random Numbers | |
| |
| |
| |
Areas Under the Normal Curve | |
| |
| |
| |
Student's t Distributions Table | |
| |
| |
| |
F Distribution Tables | |
| |
| |
| |
Chi Square Table | |
| |
| |
| |
Excerpts from the Code of Ethics of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences | |
| |
| |
Glossary | |
| |
| |
Index | |