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How Do We Know? | |
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Introduction: What This Text Is About | |
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A Few Quick Tips for Using This Text | |
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Preamble for Chapter 1 | |
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A Brief History of Human Knowledge | |
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Metaphysical Systems | |
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Philosophy | |
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Physiology and the Physical Sciences | |
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Experimental Psychology | |
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The Four Canons of Science | |
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Determinism | |
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Empiricism | |
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Parsimony | |
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Testability | |
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Four Ways of Knowing About the World | |
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Summary | |
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Study Questions | |
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Notes | |
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How Do We Find Out? The Logic, Art, and Ethics of Scientific Discovery | |
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The Logic of Scientific Discovery | |
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Laws, Theories, and Hypotheses | |
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The Science of Observation | |
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Three Approaches to Hypothesis Testing | |
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The Art of Scientific Discovery | |
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Inductive Techniques for Developing Ideas | |
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Deductive Techniques for Developing Ideas | |
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The Ethics of Scientific Discovery | |
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The Evolution of Ethical Guidelines | |
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Modern Internal Review Boards and Risk-Benefit Analyses | |
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A Primer in Ethical Guidelines | |
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Summary | |
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Study Questions | |
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Notes | |
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Moving From Fact to Truth: Validity, Reliability, and Measurement | |
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Three Strange Stories | |
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Validity | |
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Internal Validity | |
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External Validity | |
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Construct Validity | |
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Conceptual Validity | |
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Reliability | |
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Reliability, Validity, and the "More Is Better" Rule | |
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Measurement Scales | |
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Nominal Scales | |
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Ordinal Scales | |
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Interval Scales | |
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Ratio Scales | |
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The Validity of Measurement Assumptions | |
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Summary | |
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Study Questions | |
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Moving From Notions to Numbers: Psychological Measurement | |
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Converting Notions to Numbers: The Two Major Challenges | |
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The Judgment Phase | |
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Walking a Mile in Someone Else's Moccasins: Perspective Taking | |
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Wording Questions Well for Everyone: Being Clear and Simple | |
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The Response Translation Phase | |
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The Number of Scale Points | |
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The Importance of Anchors | |
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Putting It All Together: The EGWA Scale | |
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Special Cases Require Special Scales | |
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From Writing Questions to Creating Scales | |
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Three Steps to Designing Questionnaires | |
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Alternate Measures | |
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Summary | |
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Study Questions | |
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How Do We Misinterpret? Common Threats to Validity | |
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One Strange and Lucrative Story | |
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People Are Different | |
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Individual Differences and "Third Variables" | |
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Selection Bias and Nonresponse Bias | |
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People Change | |
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History and Maturation | |
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Regression Toward the Mean | |
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The Process of Studying People Changes People | |
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Testing Effects | |
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Experimental Mortality (Attrition) | |
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Participant Reaction Bias | |
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Experimenter Bias | |
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Moving From Three Threats to Two: Confounds and Artifacts | |
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Confounds | |
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Artifacts | |
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Confounds Versus Artifacts | |
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Summary | |
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Study Questions | |
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Note | |
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Nonexperimental Research Designs | |
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Describing the World of a Single Participant: Case Studies | |
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Please Don't Try This at Home: The Case of Phineas Gage | |
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My Life as a Dog: The Case of Stephen D. | |
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Really, Really Late Night with Peter Tripp | |
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The Life and Very Hard Times of Sarah | |
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The Man Who Forgot His Wife and His Hat | |
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What Makes a Case Study Scientific? | |
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Describing the State of the World at Large: Single-Variable Research | |
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Population Surveys | |
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Epidemiological Research | |
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Research on Public Opinion | |
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Limitations and Drawbacks of Population Surveys | |
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Single-Variable Convenience Samples | |
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Describing Associations: Multiple-Variable Research | |
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Correlational Methods | |
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Person Confounds | |
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Environmental Confounds | |
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Operational Confounds | |
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A Reminder About Reverse Causality | |
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Archival Research | |
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Observational Research | |
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Confounds Can Be Measured Too! | |
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Summary | |
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Study Questions | |
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Notes | |
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Experience Carefully Planned: Experimental Research Designs | |
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A Wonderful Method | |
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A Brief History of True Experiments | |
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Strengths of True Experiments | |
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True Experiments Eliminate Individual Differences | |
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True Experiments Eliminate Other Kinds of Confounds | |
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True Experiments Pull Researchers Into the Laboratory | |
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True Experiments Allow Researchers to Observe the Invisible | |
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True Experiments Provide Information About Statistical Interactions | |
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True Experiments Minimize Noise | |
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A Summary of Experimentation | |
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Are True Experiments Realistic? | |
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The Problem: Artificiality | |
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The Solution: Two Forms of Realism | |
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Is There a Recipe for Experimental Realism? | |
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Trade-Offs Between Internal and External Validity | |
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The "How-To"s of Laboratory Studies | |
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Setting the Stage | |
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Rehearsing and Playing the Part | |
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When the Study Is Done: Replicate as Needed | |
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Summary | |
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Study Questions | |
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Notes | |
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Experience Carefully Exploited: Quasi-Experimental Research Designs | |
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One Very Old Story | |
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Why Quasi-Experiments? | |
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Kinds of Quasi-Experiments | |
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Person-by-Treatment Quasi-Experiments | |
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Natural Experiments | |
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Nature and Treatment Designs | |
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Comparability | |
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Patched-Up Designs | |
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Evaluating a Teaching Tool | |
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Would a Rose by Any Other Name Move to Rosemont? | |
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When True Experiments and Quasi-Experiments Collide | |
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Summary | |
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Study Questions | |
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Notes | |
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Choosing the Right Research Design | |
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One Obscure Movie | |
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One-Way Designs | |
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Factorial Designs | |
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Ins and Outs of Factorial Designs | |
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Main Effects | |
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Interactions | |
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Within-Subjects Designs | |
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Advantages of Within-Subjects Designs | |
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Disadvantages of Within-Subjects Designs | |
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Solutions | |
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Mixed-Model Designs | |
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Summary | |
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Study Questions | |
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Notes | |
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A Brief Course in Statistics | |
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Descriptive Statistics | |
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Central Tendency and Dispersion | |
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The Shape of Distributions | |
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Inferential Statistics | |
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Probability Theory | |
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A Study of Cheating | |
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Things That Go Bump in the Light: Factors That Influence the Results of Significance Tests | |
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Alpha Levels and Type I and II Errors | |
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Effect Size and Significance Testing | |
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Measurement Error and Significance Testing | |
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Sample Size and Significance Testing | |
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Restriction of Range and Significance Testing | |
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The Changing State of the Art: Alternate Perspectives on Statistical Hypothesis Testing | |
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Estimates of Effect Size | |
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Meta-Analysis | |
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Summary | |
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Study Questions | |
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Notes | |
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Telling the World About It | |
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The Hourglass Approach to Empirical Research Papers | |
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Some "Rules" to Writing Research Papers | |
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Be Correct | |
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Be Clear | |
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Be Comprehensive (but Discerning) | |
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Be Concise | |
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Be (Somewhat) Cautious | |
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Be Assertive | |
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Be Predictable | |
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Be Creative | |
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Be Original (and Cite Your Lack of Originality) | |
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Be Gender Neutral | |
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Be Easy on the Eyes | |
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No More Rules | |
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How to Give a Good Talk in Psychology (by Daniel T. Gilbert) | |
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Have a Plan | |
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Tell the Plan | |
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Start at the Beginning | |
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Be Painfully Clear | |
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Talk About One Interesting Thing | |
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Take Charge of the Interaction | |
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End at the End | |
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Summary | |
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Study Questions | |
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Putting Your Knowledge to Work: 20 Methodology Problems | |
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In Search of a Delicious, Low-Fat TV Show | |
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Let's Get Supernatural | |
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Fly Away Home | |
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Impressive Pickup Lines | |
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Clever Who? | |
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Life Sucks and So You Die | |
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On the Drawbacks of Liking Yourself | |
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The Early Bird Gets the Win? | |
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Testosterone Makes Better Dive Bombers | |
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Working Your Fingers to the Dean's List | |
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To Thine Own Selves Be True | |
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A Rosy Mood by Any Other Name? | |
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Old Geniuses Never Die Young? | |
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Sampling Student Opinion | |
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I'm Speechless | |
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He May Be Small but He's Slow | |
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Everyone's a Winner | |
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Can a Couple of Beers Really Go Straight to Your Belly? | |
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What's in a Name? | |
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Are You Threatening Me? | |
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Coda | |
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Hands-On Activities | |
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Hands-On Activity 1 | |
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Galileo's Dice | |
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Group 1 (the Logical Counters of Ways) | |
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Group 2 (the Logical Expected Evaluators) | |
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Groups 3 and/or 4 (the Empiricists) | |
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What About Intuition and Authority? | |
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More Detailed Instructions for Groups 1 and 2 | |
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Questions | |
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Hands-On Activity 2 | |
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Regression Toward the Mean | |
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Questions for Group Discussion | |
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Special Notes to the Instructor | |
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Hands-On Activity 3 | |
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A Double-Blind Taste Test with Popular Colas | |
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Information for the Experimenter | |
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Instructions for Participants in the Cola Taste Test | |
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Questions for Students | |
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Hands-On Activity 4 | |
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The Stroop Interference Effect | |
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Advance Preparation | |
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Task Instructions | |
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Methodological Notes | |
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Methodology Exercises | |
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Methodology Exercise 1 | |
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Partial Correlation | |
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Hypothetical Data From Observational Study of Cookie Thefts | |
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A Question | |
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More Data | |
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Complete Data for Observational Study of Cookie Thefts | |
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More Questions | |
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Methodology Exercise 2 | |
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Random Assignment | |
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Questions | |
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Methodology Exercise 3 | |
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Interactions | |
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Methodology Exercise 4 | |
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Repeated Measures Designs | |
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Questions | |
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How to Describe the Results of Statistical Analyses | |
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The Mysterious Spheres | |
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The Murder Rate Study | |
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The Survey Study of Apathy and Energy | |
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The Newlywed Marriage Study | |
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The Stereotyping Study | |
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A Brief Return to Roberto and to the Newlywed Study | |
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The Duck in the Drugstore Study | |
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Notes | |
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The Role of Status in Producing Depressed Entitlement in Women's and Men's Pay Allocations | |
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Glossary | |
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References | |
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Name Index | |
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Subject Index | |