Preface | p. xiii |
About the Authors | p. xix |
Information on the Internet | p. xxi |
Needs Assessment and the Learning Environment | |
The Training Context | p. 1 |
Scope of the Instructional Process | p. 2 |
What Do We Know about Trainers? | p. 3 |
What Do We Know about Types of Training and Training Methods? | p. 4 |
Training Challenges | p. 9 |
The Changing Workplace and Workforce | p. 11 |
Changes in Demographics of Entry-Level Persons in the Workforce | p. 11 |
Increasing Job Complexity | p. 13 |
Shifts from Manufacturing to Service Jobs | p. 14 |
Organizations and Global Markets | p. 15 |
Implications for Future Workplace Training Systems | p. 15 |
The Problem of Youth with a Skill Gap | p. 16 |
Changes in Technology | p. 16 |
Concern for Maximizing Individual Worker Potential | p. 17 |
Managerial Training Implications of a Competitive Environment | p. 18 |
Accountability | p. 19 |
Training as a Subsystem | p. 20 |
A Systematic Approach to Training | p. 22 |
Assessment Phase | p. 24 |
Assessing Training Needs | p. 24 |
Deriving Instructional Objectives | p. 27 |
Training and Development Phase | p. 28 |
Choosing a Training Environment | p. 28 |
Trainee Characteristics | p. 29 |
Learning Principles | p. 29 |
Contextual Factors | p. 30 |
Evaluation Phase | p. 30 |
Instructional Techniques and Training Methods | p. 32 |
The Needs Assessment Phase | p. 34 |
Organizational Support for the Needs Assessment Process | p. 37 |
Establishing a Relationship with Top-Level Management | p. 39 |
Establishing a Relationship with Members of the Organization | p. 40 |
Organizational Analysis | p. 41 |
Specifying Goals | p. 41 |
Determining the Organizational Training Climate | p. 43 |
Identifying External and Legal Constraints | p. 46 |
Resource Analysis | p. 48 |
Requirements Analysis | p. 49 |
Understanding the Job in the Context of the Organization | p. 50 |
Defining the Target Job | p. 51 |
Choosing the Methods for Conducting a Needs Assessment | p. 51 |
Determining the Participants in the Needs Assessment Process | p. 53 |
Determining the Points of Contact in the Organization | p. 57 |
Anticipating Problems to Be Resolved | p. 57 |
Developing a Protocol | p. 58 |
Task and Knowledge, Skill, and Ability Analysis | p. 59 |
Developing Task Statements | p. 59 |
Determining Task Clusters | p. 62 |
Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities and Psychological Fidelity | p. 64 |
Developing Knowledge, Skill, and Ability Analysis | p. 64 |
Determining Relevant Task and KSA Characteristics | p. 68 |
Linking of Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities to Tasks | p. 72 |
Competencies | p. 74 |
Person Analysis | p. 75 |
Developing Performance Indicators | p. 75 |
Determining KSA Gaps and Developing Approaches to Resolve Them | p. 76 |
Summarizing the Needs Assessment Phase | p. 77 |
Examples of Needs Assessment Methods and Techniques | p. 78 |
Content-Oriented Job Analysis | p. 78 |
Strategic Job Analysis and Strategic Training | p. 80 |
Conclusions | p. 83 |
The Learning Environment | p. 85 |
Instructional Design | p. 88 |
What Is to Be Learned? | p. 88 |
Learning Outcomes | p. 88 |
Stages of Learning | p. 89 |
Expert-Novice Differences | p. 92 |
Implications of Cognitive Learning Approaches for Training Needs Assessment | p. 96 |
Building Effective Instruction | p. 98 |
From Training Objectives to a Plan of Instruction | p. 99 |
Incorporating Learning Principles | p. 104 |
Feedback | p. 104 |
Automaticity and Overlearning | p. 106 |
Production of the Response | p. 107 |
Advanced Organizers | p. 108 |
Massed versus Spaced Practice | p. 108 |
Whole versus Part Learning | p. 109 |
Trainee Issues | p. 110 |
Trainee Readiness | p. 111 |
Trainee Motivation to Learn | p. 115 |
Motivational Theories | p. 120 |
Social Learning Theory | p. 120 |
Goal Setting | p. 122 |
Expectancy Theory | p. 123 |
Reinforcement Theory | p. 124 |
Equity Theory | p. 125 |
Need Theory | p. 125 |
The Conditions of Transfer | p. 126 |
Classical Approach to Transfer | p. 128 |
The Work Context and Transfer | p. 132 |
Conclusions | p. 136 |
Evaluation | |
The Criterion Choices: Introduction to the Evaluation Process | p. 138 |
Barriers and Contributions in the Evaluation Process | p. 138 |
Values and the Evaluation Process | p. 142 |
Introduction to Criterion Development | p. 143 |
Choosing the Criterion Measures | p. 143 |
The Evaluation of Criteria | p. 145 |
Criterion Relevancy | p. 145 |
Criterion Deficiency | p. 148 |
Criterion Contamination | p. 149 |
Criterion Reliability | p. 150 |
Other Considerations | p. 151 |
The Many Dimensions of Criteria | p. 151 |
Levels of Criteria | p. 152 |
The Interrelationship of Reaction, Learning, Behavior, and Results | p. 161 |
A Conceptually Based Classification Scheme of Learning | p. 164 |
Outcome Criteria and Summative Evaluation: Process Criteria and Formative Evaluation | p. 166 |
Time Dimension | p. 168 |
Types of Criteria | p. 169 |
Criterion- and Norm-Referenced Measures | p. 169 |
Objective and Subjective Measures | p. 171 |
Conclusions | p. 174 |
Evaluation Procedures | p. 177 |
Views of the Evaluation Process | p. 178 |
Phases of the Evaluation Process | p. 178 |
Methodological Considerations in the Use of Experimental Designs | p. 179 |
Pretesting and Posttesting | p. 179 |
Control Groups | p. 179 |
Internal and External Validity | p. 180 |
Threats to Internal Validity | p. 181 |
Internal Validity and Intervention Threats | p. 183 |
Threats to External Validity | p. 184 |
Experimental Design | p. 186 |
Preexperimental Designs | p. 187 |
Research Example of Preexperimental Designs | p. 188 |
Experimental Designs | p. 191 |
Research Example of Experimental Designs | p. 193 |
Quasi-Experimental Designs | p. 194 |
Research Example of Quasi-Experimental Designs--Time Series | p. 195 |
Research Example of Quasi-Experimental Designs--Nonequivalent Control-Group Design | p. 199 |
Utility Considerations | p. 201 |
Other Methods of Evaluation | p. 205 |
Individual-Differences Models of Predictive Validity | p. 205 |
Content-Validity Models | p. 208 |
Practical, Statistical, and Scientific Significance | p. 214 |
From Needs Assessment to Training Validity: Some Concluding Words | p. 215 |
Intra-organizational Validity | p. 217 |
Inter-organizational Validity | p. 218 |
Instructional Approaches | |
Training Delivery: Traditional Instructional Approaches and Emerging Learning Technologies | p. 220 |
Traditional Instructional Approaches | p. 222 |
Classroom Instruction | p. 223 |
Self-Directed Learning Programs | p. 231 |
Readings, Workbooks, and Correspondence Courses | p. 231 |
Programmed Instruction | p. 232 |
Simulated Work Settings | p. 236 |
Reasons for Using Training Simulators | p. 236 |
Fidelity Issues | p. 240 |
Simulator Designed to Facilitate Training Transfer | p. 242 |
Effective Instruction | p. 244 |
Role of the Trainer | p. 244 |
Characteristics of Good Trainers | p. 245 |
Emerging Training Technologies | p. 249 |
Distance Learning | p. 251 |
CD-ROM and Interactive Multimedia | p. 252 |
Web-based Instruction | p. 257 |
Intelligent Tutoring Systems | p. 260 |
Virtual Reality Training | p. 264 |
Conclusions | p. 268 |
A Variety of Training Interventions and Learning Experiences | p. 271 |
Building Employee Capabilities | p. 274 |
Employee Orientation | p. 275 |
Newcomer Socialization | p. 276 |
On-the-Job Training | p. 281 |
Apprenticeships | p. 283 |
Embedded Training | p. 286 |
Performance Support Systems | p. 287 |
Enterprise Training | p. 289 |
Building Team Effectiveness | p. 290 |
Cross Training | p. 295 |
Interpositional Training | p. 296 |
Team Self-Management | p. 297 |
Challenge Education and Adventure Learning | p. 299 |
Action Learning | p. 302 |
Developing Leaders | p. 305 |
Business Simulations | p. 305 |
Behavioral Role Modeling and Applied Learning | p. 308 |
Assessment Centers and Multirater Feedback | p. 313 |
Experience-Centered Learning | p. 317 |
Global Leadership | p. 320 |
Conclusions | p. 326 |
Learning Systems | p. 328 |
A Systems Perspective | p. 328 |
Training and the Learning Organization | p. 331 |
Fundamental Characteristics of a Learning Organization | p. 332 |
Models for Becoming a Learning Organization | p. 334 |
Challenges to Becoming a Learning Organization | p. 342 |
Training and Societal Concerns | p. 343 |
Increasing Workforce Readiness | p. 344 |
Ensuring Fainess and Enhancing Opportunity at Work | p. 352 |
Retraining Workers Given Changing Markets | p. 359 |
Conclusions | p. 363 |
References | p. 365 |
Author Index | p. 397 |
Subject Index | p. 407 |
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