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| Preface to the Second Edition | |
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| Preface to the First Edition | |
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| Acknowledgments | |
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| List of Main Symbols | |
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| Introduction: A History of Helicopter Flight | |
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| Rising Vertically | |
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| Producing Thrust | |
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| Key Technical Problems in Attaining Vertical Flight | |
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| Early Thinking | |
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| The Hoppers | |
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| The First Hoverers | |
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| Not Quite a Helicopter | |
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| Engines: A Key Enabling Technology | |
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| On the Verge of Success | |
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| The First Successes | |
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| Toward Mass Production | |
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| Maturing Technology | |
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| Compounds, Tilt-Wings, and Tilt-Rotors | |
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| Chapter Review | |
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| Questions | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Fundamentals of Rotor Aerodynamics | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Momentum Theory Analysis in Hovering Flight | |
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| Flow Near a Hovering Rotor | |
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| Conservation Laws of Aerodynamics | |
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| Application to a Hovering Rotor | |
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| Disk Loading and Power Loading | |
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| Induced Inflow Ratio | |
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| Thrust and Power Coefficients | |
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| Comparison of Theory with Measured Rotor Performance | |
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| Nonideal Effects on Rotor Performance | |
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| Figure of Merit | |
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| Estimating Nonideal Effects from Rotor Measurements | |
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| Induced Tip Loss | |
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| Rotor Solidity and Blade Loading Coefficient | |
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| Power Loading | |
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| Momentum Analysis in Axial Climb and Descent | |
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| Axial Climb | |
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| Axial Descent | |
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| Region between Hover and Windmill State | |
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| Power Required in Axial Climbing and Descending Flight | |
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| Four Working States of the Rotor in Axial Flight | |
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| Vortex Ring State | |
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| Autorotation | |
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| Momentum Analysis in Forward Flight | |
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| Induced Velocity in Forward Flight | |
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| Special Case, [alpha] = 0 | |
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| Numerical Solution to Inflow Equation | |
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| General Form of the Inflow Equation | |
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| Validity of the Inflow Equation | |
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| Rotor Power Requirements in Forward Flight | |
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| Other Applications of the Momentum Theory | |
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| Coaxial Rotor Systems | |
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| Tandem Rotor Systems | |
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| Chapter Review | |
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| Questions | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Blade Element Analysis | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Blade Element Analysis in Hover and Axial Flight | |
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| Integrated Rotor Thrust and Power | |
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| Thrust Approximations | |
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| Torque-Power Approximations | |
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| Tip-Loss Factor | |
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| Blade Element Momentum Theory (BEMT) | |
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| Assumed Radial Distributions of Inflow on the Blades | |
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| Radial Inflow Equation | |
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| Ideal Twist | |
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| BEMT: Numerical Solution | |
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| Distributions of Inflow and Airloads | |
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| Effects of Swirl Velocity | |
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| The Optimum Hovering Rotor | |
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| Circulation Theory of Lift | |
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| Power Estimates for the Rotor | |
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| Prandtl's Tip-Loss Function | |
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| Blade Design and Figure of Merit | |
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| BEMT in Climbing Flight | |
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| Further Comparisons of BEMT with Experiment | |
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| Compressibility Corrections to Rotor Performance | |
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| Equivalent Blade Chords and Weighted Solidity | |
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| Mean Wing Chords | |
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| Thrust Weighted Solidity | |
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| Power-Torque Weighted Solidity | |
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| Weighted Solidity of the Optimum Rotor | |
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| Weighted Solidities of Tapered Blades | |
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| Mean Lift Coefficient | |
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| Blade Element Analysis in Forward Flight | |
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| Determining Blade Forces | |
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| Definition of the Approximate Induced Velocity Field | |
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| Chapter Review | |
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| Questions | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Rotating Blade Motion | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Types of Rotors | |
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| Equilibrium about the Flapping Hinge | |
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| Equilibrium about the Lead-Lag Hinge | |
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| Equation of Motion for a Flapping Blade | |
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| Physical Description of Blade Flapping | |
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| Coning Angle | |
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| Longitudinal Flapping Angle | |
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| Lateral Flapping Angle | |
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| Higher Harmonics of Blade Flapping | |
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| Dynamics of Blade Flapping with a Hinge Offset | |
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| Blade Feathering and the Swashplate | |
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| Review of Rotor Reference Axes | |
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| Dynamics of a Lagging Blade with a Hinge Offset | |
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| Coupled Flap-Lag Motion | |
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| Coupled Pitch-Flap Motion | |
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| Other Types of Rotors | |
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| Teetering Rotor | |
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| Semi-Rigid or Hingeless Rotors | |
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| Introduction to Rotor Trim | |
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| Equations for Free-Flight Trim | |
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| Typical Trim Solution Procedure for Level Flight | |
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| Chapter Review | |
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| Questions | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Helicopter Performance | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The International Standard Atmosphere | |
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| Hovering and Axial Climb Performance | |
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| Forward Flight Performance | |
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| Induced Power | |
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| Blade Profile Power | |
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| Compressibility Losses and Tip Relief | |
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| Reverse Flow | |
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| Parasitic Power | |
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| Climb Power | |
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| Tail Rotor Power | |
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| Total Power | |
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| Performance Analysis | |
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| Effect of Gross Weight | |
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| Effect of Density Altitude | |
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| Life-to-Drag Ratios | |
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| Climb Performance | |
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| Engine Fuel Consumption | |
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| Speed for Minimum Power | |
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| Speed for Maximum Range | |
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| Range-Payload and Endurance-Payload Relations | |
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| Maximum Altitude or Ceiling | |
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| Factors Affecting Maximum Attainable Forward Speed | |
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| Performance of Coaxial and Tandem Dual Rotor Systems | |
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| Autorotational Performance | |
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| Autorotation in Forward Flight | |
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| Height-Velocity (H-V) Curve | |
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| Autorotation Index | |
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| Vortex Ring State (VRS) | |
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| Quantification of VRS Effects | |
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| Implications of VRS on Flight Boundary | |
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| Ground Effect | |
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| Hovering Flight Near the Ground | |
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| Forward Flight Near the Ground | |
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| Performance in Maneuvering Flight | |
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| Steady Maneuvers | |
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| Transient Maneuvers | |
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| Factors Influencing Performance Degradation | |
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| Chapter Review | |
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| Questions | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Aerodynamic Design of Helicopters | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Overall Design Requirements | |
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| Conceptual and Preliminary Design Processes | |
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| Design of the Main Rotor | |
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| Rotor Diameter | |
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| Tip Speed | |
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| Rotor Solidity | |
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| Number of Blades | |
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| Blade Twist | |
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| Blade Planform and Tip Shape | |
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| Airfoil Sections | |
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| Case Study: The BERP Rotor | |
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| Fuselage Aerodynamic Design Issues | |
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| Fuselage Drag | |
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| Vertical Drag and Download Penalty | |
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| Vertical Drag Recovery | |
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| Fuselage Side-Force | |
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| Empennage Design | |
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| Horizontal Stabilizer | |
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| Vertical Stabilizer | |
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| Role of Wind Tunnels in Aerodynamic Design | |
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| Design of Tail Rotors | |
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| Physical Size | |
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| Thrust Requirements | |
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| Precessional Stall Issues | |
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| "Pushers" versus "Tractors" | |
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| Design Requirements | |
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| Representative Tail Rotor Designs | |
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| Other Anti-Torque Devices | |
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| Fan-in-Fin | |
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| NOTAR Design | |
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| High-Speed Rotorcraft | |
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| Compound Helicopters | |
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| Tilt-Rotors | |
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| Other High-Speed Concepts | |
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| Smart Rotor Systems | |
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| Human-Powered Helicopter | |
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| Hovering Micro Air Vehicles | |
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| Chapter Review | |
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| Questions | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Aerodynamics of Rotor Airfoils | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Helicopter Rotor Airfoil Requirements | |
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| Reynolds Number and Mach Number Effects | |
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| Reynolds Number | |
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| Concept of the Boundary Layer | |
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| Mach Number | |
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| Model Rotor Similarity Parameters | |
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| Airfoil Shape Definition | |
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| Airfoil Pressure Distributions | |
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| Pressure Coefficient | |
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| Critical Pressure Coefficient | |
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| Synthesis of Chordwise Pressure | |
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| Measurements of Chordwise Pressure | |
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| Aerodynamics of a Representative Airfoil Section | |
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| Integration of Distributed Forces | |
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| Pressure Integration | |
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| Representative Force and Moment Results | |
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| Pitching Moment and Related Issues | |
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| Aerodynamic Center | |
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| Center of Pressure | |
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| Effect of Airfoil Shape on Pitching Moment | |
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| Use of Trailing Edge Tabs | |
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| Reflexed Airfoils | |
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| Drag | |
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| Maximum Lift and Stall Characteristics | |
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| Effects of Reynolds Number | |
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| Effects of Mach Number | |
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| Advanced Rotor Airfoil Design | |
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| Representing Static Airfoil Characteristics | |
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| Linear Aerodynamic Models | |
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| Nonlinear Aerodynamic Models | |
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| Table Look-Up | |
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| Direct Curve Fitting | |
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| Beddoes Method | |
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| High Angle of Attack Range | |
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| Circulation Controlled Airfoils | |
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| Very Low Reynolds Number Airfoil Characteristics | |
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| Effects of Damage on Airfoil Performance | |
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| Chapter Review | |
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| Questions | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Unsteady Airfoil Behavior | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Sources of Unsteady Aerodynamic Loading | |
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| Concepts of the Blade Wake | |
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| Reduced Frequency and Reduced Time | |
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| Unsteady Attached Flow | |
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| Principles of Quasi-Steady Thin-Airfoil Theory | |
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| Theodorsen's Theory | |
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| Pure Angle of Attack Oscillations | |
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| Pure Plunging Oscillations | |
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| Pitching Oscillations | |
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| The Returning Wake: Loewy's Problem | |
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| Sinusoidal Gust: Sears's Problem | |
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| Indicial Response: Wagner's Problem | |
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| Sharp-Edged Gust: Kussner's Problem | |
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| Traveling Sharp-Edged Gust: Miles's Problem | |
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| Time-Varying Incident Velocity | |
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| General Application of the Indicial Response Method | |
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| Recurrence Solution to the Duhamel Integral | |
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| State-Space Solution for Arbitrary Motion | |
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| Indicial Method for Subsonic Compressible Flow | |
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| Approximations to the Indicial Response | |
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| Indicial Lift from Angle of Attack | |
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| Indicial Lift from Pitch Rate | |
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| Determination of Indicial Function Coefficients | |
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| Indicial Pitching Moment from Angle of Attack | |
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| Indicial Pitching Moment from Pitch Rate | |
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| Unsteady Axial Force and Airfoil Drag | |
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| State-Space Aerodynamic Model for Compressible Flow | |
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| Comparison with Experiment | |
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| Nonuniform Vertical Velocity Fields | |
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| Exact Subsonic Linear Theory | |
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| Approximations to the Sharp-Edged Gust Functions | |
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| Response to an Arbitrary Vertical Gust | |
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| Blade-Vortex Interaction (BVI) Problem | |
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| Convecting Vertical Gusts in Subsonic Flow | |
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| Time-Varying Incident Mach Number | |
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| Unsteady Aerodynamics of Flaps | |
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| Incompressible Flow Theory | |
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| Subsonic Flow Theory | |
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| Comparison with Measurements | |
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| Principles of Noise Produced by Unsteady Forces | |
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| Retarded Time and Source Time | |
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| Wave Tracing | |
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| Compactness | |
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| Trace or Phase Mach Number | |
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| Ffowcs-Williams-Hawkins Equation | |
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| BVI Acoustic Model Problem | |
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| Comparison of Aeroacoustic Methods | |
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| Methods of Rotor Noise Reduction | |
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| Chapter Review | |
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| Questions | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Dynamic Stall | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Flow Morphology of Dynamic Stall | |
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| Dynamic Stall in the Rotor Environment | |
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| Effects of Forcing Conditions on Dynamic Stall | |
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| Modeling of Dynamic Stall | |
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| Semi-Empirical Models of Dynamic Stall | |
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| Capabilities of Dynamic Stall Modeling | |
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| Future Modeling Goals with Semi-Empirical Models | |
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| Torsional Damping | |
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| Effects of Sweep Angle on Dynamic Stall | |
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| Effect of Airfoil Shape on Dynamic Stall | |
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| Three-Dimensional Effects on Dynamic Stall | |
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| Time-Varying Velocity Effects on Dynamic Stall | |
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| Prediction of In-Flight Airloads | |
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| Stall Control | |
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| Chapter Review | |
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| Questions | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Rotor Wakes and Blade Tip Vortices | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Flow Visualization Techniques | |
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| Natural Condensation Effects | |
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| Smoke Flow Visualization | |
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| Density Gradient Methods | |
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| Characteristics of the Rotor Wake in Hover | |
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| General Features | |
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| Wake Geometry in Hover | |
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| Characteristics of the Rotor Wake in Forward Flight | |
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| Wake Boundaries | |
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| Blade-Vortex Interactions (BVIs) | |
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| Other Characteristics of Rotor Wakes | |
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| Periodicity versus Aperiodicity | |
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| Vortex Perturbations and Instabilities | |
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| Detailed Structure of the Tip Vortices | |
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| Velocity Field | |
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| Models for the Tip Vortex | |
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| Vorticity Diffusion Effects and Vortex Core Growth | |
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| Correlation of Rotor Tip Vortex Data | |
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| Flow Rotation Effects on Turbulence Inside Vortices | |
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| Vortex Models of the Rotor Wake | |
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| Biot-Savart Law | |
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| Vortex Segmentation | |
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| Governing Equations for the Convecting Vortex Wake | |
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| Prescribed Wake Models for Hovering Flight | |
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| Prescribed Vortex Wake Models for Forward Flight | |
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| Free-Vortex Wake Analyses | |
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| Aperiodic Wake Developments | |
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| Wake Stability Analysis | |
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| Flow Visualization of Transient Wake Problems | |
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| Dynamic Inflow | |
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| Time-Marching Free-Vortex Wakes | |
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| Simulation of Carpenter & Friedovich Problem | |
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| General Dynamic Inflow Models | |
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| Descending Flight and the Vortex Ring State | |
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| Wake Developments in Maneuvering Flight | |
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| Chapter Review | |
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| Questions | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Rotor-Airframe Interactional Aerodynamics | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Rotor-Fuselage Interactions | |
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| Effects of the Fuselage on Rotor Performance | |
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| Time-Averaged Effects on the Airframe | |
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| Unsteady Rotor-Fuselage Interactions | |
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| Fuselage Side-Forces | |
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| Modeling of Rotor-Fuselage Interactions | |
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| Rotor-Empennage Interactions | |
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| Airloads on the Horizontal Tail | |
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| Modeling of Rotor-Empennage Interactions | |
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| Rotor-Tail Rotor Interactions | |
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| Chapter Review | |
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| Questions | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Autogiros and Gyroplanes | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Curious Phenomenon of Autorotation | |
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| Review of Autorotational Physics | |
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| Rolling Rotors: The Dilemma of Asymmetric Lift | |
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| Innovation of the Flapping and Lagging Hinges | |
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| Prerotating the Rotor | |
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| Autogiro Theory Meets Practice | |
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| Vertical Flight Performance of the Autogiro | |
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| Forward Flight Performance of the Autogiro | |
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| Comparison of Autogiro Performance with the Helicopter | |
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| Airfoils for Autogiros | |
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| NACA Research on Autogiros | |
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| Giving Better Control: Orientable Rotors | |
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| Improving Performance: Jump and Towering Takeoffs | |
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| Ground and Air Resonance | |
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| Helicopters Eclipse Autogiros | |
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| Renaissance of the Autogiro? | |
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| Chapter Review | |
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| Questions | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Aerodynamics of Wind Turbines | |
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| Introduction | |
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| History of Wind Turbine Development | |
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| Power in the Wind | |
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| Momentum Theory Analysis for a Wind Turbine | |
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| Power and Thrust Coefficients for a Wind Turbine | |
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| Theoretical Maximum Efficiency | |
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| Representative Power Curve for a Wind Turbine | |
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| Elementary Wind Models | |
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| Blade Element Model for the Wind Turbine | |
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| Blade Element Momentum Theory for a Wind Turbine | |
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| Effect of Number of Blades | |
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| Effect of Viscous Drag | |
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| Tip-Loss Effects | |
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| Tip Losses and Other Viscous Losses | |
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| Effects of Stall | |
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| Airfoils for Wind Turbines | |
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| Yawed Flow Operation | |
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| Vortex Wake Considerations | |
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| Unsteady Aerodynamic Effects on Wind Turbines | |
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| Tower Shadow | |
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| Dynamic Stall and Stall Delay | |
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| Advanced Aerodynamic Modeling Requirements | |
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| Chapter Review | |
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| Questions | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Computational Methods for Helicopter Aerodynamics | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Fundamental Governing Equations of Aerodynamics | |
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| Navier-Stokes Equations | |
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| Euler Equations | |
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| Vorticity Transport Equations | |
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| Vortex Methods | |
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| Boundary Layer Equations | |
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| Potential Equations | |
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| Surface Singularity Methods | |
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| Thin Airfoil Theory | |
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| Lifting-Line Blade Model | |
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| Applications of Advanced Computational Methods | |
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| Unsteady Airfoil Performance | |
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| Tip Vortex Formation | |
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| CFD Modeling of the Rotor Wake | |
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| Airframe Flows | |
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| Vibrations and Acoustics | |
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| Ground Effect | |
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| Vortex Ring State | |
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| Comprehensive Rotor Analyses | |
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| Chapter Review | |
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| Questions | |
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| Bibliography | |
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| Appendix | |
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| Index | |