| |
| |
| Preface | |
| |
| |
| |
| The origins of language | |
| |
| |
| The divine source | |
| |
| |
| The natural sound source | |
| |
| |
| The physical adaptation source | |
| |
| |
| Teeth, lips, mouth, larynx and pharynx | |
| |
| |
| The human brain | |
| |
| |
| The genetic source | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Animals and human language | |
| |
| |
| Communicative and informative signals | |
| |
| |
| Displacement | |
| |
| |
| Arbitrariness | |
| |
| |
| Productivity | |
| |
| |
| Cultural transmission | |
| |
| |
| Duality | |
| |
| |
| Talking to animals | |
| |
| |
| Chimpanzees and language | |
| |
| |
| Washoe | |
| |
| |
| Sarah and Lana | |
| |
| |
| The controversy | |
| |
| |
| Kanzi | |
| |
| |
| The barest rudiments of language | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| The development of writing | |
| |
| |
| Pictograms and ideograms | |
| |
| |
| Logograms | |
| |
| |
| Rebus writing | |
| |
| |
| Syllabic writing | |
| |
| |
| Alphabetic writing | |
| |
| |
| Written English | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| The sounds of language | |
| |
| |
| Phonetics | |
| |
| |
| Voiced and voiceless sounds | |
| |
| |
| Place of articulation | |
| |
| |
| Bilabials | |
| |
| |
| Labiodentals | |
| |
| |
| Dentals | |
| |
| |
| Alveolars | |
| |
| |
| Palatals | |
| |
| |
| Velars | |
| |
| |
| Glottals | |
| |
| |
| Charting consonant sounds | |
| |
| |
| Limitations of the chart | |
| |
| |
| Manner of articulation | |
| |
| |
| Stops | |
| |
| |
| Fricatives | |
| |
| |
| Affricates | |
| |
| |
| Nasals | |
| |
| |
| Liquids | |
| |
| |
| Glides | |
| |
| |
| The glottal stop and the flap | |
| |
| |
| Vowels | |
| |
| |
| Diphthongs | |
| |
| |
| Subtle individual variation | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| The sound patterns of language | |
| |
| |
| Phonology | |
| |
| |
| Phonemes | |
| |
| |
| Phones and allophones | |
| |
| |
| Minimal pairs and sets | |
| |
| |
| Phonotactics | |
| |
| |
| Syllables and clusters | |
| |
| |
| Co-articulation effects | |
| |
| |
| Assimilation | |
| |
| |
| Elision | |
| |
| |
| Normal speech | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Bob Belviso translated | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Words and word-formation processes | |
| |
| |
| Etymology | |
| |
| |
| Coinage | |
| |
| |
| Borrowing | |
| |
| |
| Compounding | |
| |
| |
| Blending | |
| |
| |
| Clipping | |
| |
| |
| Backformation | |
| |
| |
| Conversion | |
| |
| |
| Acronyms | |
| |
| |
| Derivation | |
| |
| |
| Prefixes and suffixes | |
| |
| |
| Infixes | |
| |
| |
| Multiple processes | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Morphology | |
| |
| |
| Morphology | |
| |
| |
| Morphemes | |
| |
| |
| Free and bound morphemes | |
| |
| |
| Lexical and functional morphemes | |
| |
| |
| Derivational and inflectional morphemes | |
| |
| |
| Morphological description | |
| |
| |
| Problems in morphological description | |
| |
| |
| Morphs and allomorphs | |
| |
| |
| Other languages | |
| |
| |
| Kanuri | |
| |
| |
| Ganda | |
| |
| |
| Ilocano | |
| |
| |
| Tagalog | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Phrases and sentences: grammar | |
| |
| |
| Grammar | |
| |
| |
| Traditional grammar | |
| |
| |
| The parts of speech | |
| |
| |
| Agreement | |
| |
| |
| Grammatical gender | |
| |
| |
| Traditional analysis | |
| |
| |
| The prescriptive approach | |
| |
| |
| Captain Kirk's infinitive | |
| |
| |
| The descriptive approach | |
| |
| |
| Structural analysis | |
| |
| |
| Immediate constituent analysis | |
| |
| |
| Labeled and bracketed sentences | |
| |
| |
| A Gaelic sentence | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Syntax | |
| |
| |
| Generative grammar | |
| |
| |
| Syntactic structures | |
| |
| |
| Deep and surface structure | |
| |
| |
| Structural ambiguity | |
| |
| |
| Recursion | |
| |
| |
| Symbols used in syntactic description | |
| |
| |
| Tree diagrams | |
| |
| |
| Phrase structure rules | |
| |
| |
| Lexical rules | |
| |
| |
| Back to recursion | |
| |
| |
| Complement phrases | |
| |
| |
| Transformational rules | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Semantics | |
| |
| |
| Conceptual and associative meaning | |
| |
| |
| Semantic features | |
| |
| |
| Semantic roles | |
| |
| |
| Agent and theme | |
| |
| |
| Instrument and experiencer | |
| |
| |
| Location, source and goal | |
| |
| |
| Lexical relations | |
| |
| |
| Synonymy | |
| |
| |
| Antonymy | |
| |
| |
| Hyponymy | |
| |
| |
| Prototypes | |
| |
| |
| Homophones and homonyms | |
| |
| |
| Polysemy | |
| |
| |
| Word play | |
| |
| |
| Metonymy | |
| |
| |
| Collocation | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Pragmatics | |
| |
| |
| Invisible meaning | |
| |
| |
| Context | |
| |
| |
| Deixis | |
| |
| |
| Reference | |
| |
| |
| Inference | |
| |
| |
| Anaphora | |
| |
| |
| Presupposition | |
| |
| |
| Speech acts | |
| |
| |
| Direct and indirect speech acts | |
| |
| |
| Politeness | |
| |
| |
| Negative and positive face | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Discourse analysis | |
| |
| |
| Interpreting discourse | |
| |
| |
| Cohesion | |
| |
| |
| Coherence | |
| |
| |
| Speech events | |
| |
| |
| Conversation analysis | |
| |
| |
| Turn-taking | |
| |
| |
| The co-operative principle | |
| |
| |
| Hedges | |
| |
| |
| Implicatures | |
| |
| |
| Background knowledge | |
| |
| |
| Schemas and scripts | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Language and the brain | |
| |
| |
| Neurolinguistics | |
| |
| |
| Parts of the brain | |
| |
| |
| Broca's area | |
| |
| |
| Wernicke's area | |
| |
| |
| The motor cortex and the arcuate fasciculus | |
| |
| |
| The localization view | |
| |
| |
| The tip of the tongue phenomenon | |
| |
| |
| Slips of the tongue | |
| |
| |
| Slips of the ear | |
| |
| |
| Aphasia | |
| |
| |
| Broca's aphasia | |
| |
| |
| Wernicke's aphasia | |
| |
| |
| Conduction aphasia | |
| |
| |
| Dichotic listening | |
| |
| |
| The critical period | |
| |
| |
| Genie | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| First language acquisition | |
| |
| |
| Basic requirements | |
| |
| |
| The acquisition schedule | |
| |
| |
| Caregiver speech | |
| |
| |
| Cooing and babbling | |
| |
| |
| The one-word stage | |
| |
| |
| The two-word stage | |
| |
| |
| Telegraphic speech | |
| |
| |
| The acquisition process | |
| |
| |
| Developing morphology | |
| |
| |
| Developing syntax | |
| |
| |
| Forming questions | |
| |
| |
| Forming negatives | |
| |
| |
| Developing semantics | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Second language acquisition/learning | |
| |
| |
| Second language learning | |
| |
| |
| Acquisition and learning | |
| |
| |
| Acquisition barriers | |
| |
| |
| Affective factors | |
| |
| |
| Focus on method | |
| |
| |
| The grammar-translation method | |
| |
| |
| The audiolingual method | |
| |
| |
| Communicative approaches | |
| |
| |
| Focus on the learner | |
| |
| |
| Transfer | |
| |
| |
| Interlanguage | |
| |
| |
| Motivation | |
| |
| |
| Input and output | |
| |
| |
| Communicative competence | |
| |
| |
| Applied linguistics | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Gestures and sign languages | |
| |
| |
| Gestures | |
| |
| |
| Types of gestures | |
| |
| |
| Types of sign languages | |
| |
| |
| Oralism | |
| |
| |
| Signed English | |
| |
| |
| Origins of ASL | |
| |
| |
| The structure of signs | |
| |
| |
| Shape and orientation | |
| |
| |
| Location and movement | |
| |
| |
| Primes, faces and finger-spelling | |
| |
| |
| The meaning of signs | |
| |
| |
| Representing signs | |
| |
| |
| ASL as a natural language | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Language history and change | |
| |
| |
| Family trees | |
| |
| |
| Family connections | |
| |
| |
| Cognates | |
| |
| |
| Comparative reconstruction | |
| |
| |
| Sound reconstruction | |
| |
| |
| Word reconstruction | |
| |
| |
| Language change | |
| |
| |
| Old English | |
| |
| |
| Middle English | |
| |
| |
| Sound changes | |
| |
| |
| Syntactic changes | |
| |
| |
| Semantic changes | |
| |
| |
| Diachronic and synchronic variation | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Language and regional variation | |
| |
| |
| The standard language | |
| |
| |
| Accent and dialect | |
| |
| |
| Dialectology | |
| |
| |
| Regional dialects | |
| |
| |
| Isoglosses and dialect boundaries | |
| |
| |
| The dialect continuum | |
| |
| |
| Bilingualism and diglossia | |
| |
| |
| Language planning | |
| |
| |
| Pidgins and creoles | |
| |
| |
| The post-creole continuum | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Language and social variation | |
| |
| |
| Sociolinguistics | |
| |
| |
| Social dialects | |
| |
| |
| Education and occupation | |
| |
| |
| Social markers | |
| |
| |
| Speech style and style-shifting | |
| |
| |
| Prestige | |
| |
| |
| Speech accommodation | |
| |
| |
| Register and jargon | |
| |
| |
| Slang | |
| |
| |
| Social barriers | |
| |
| |
| Vernacular language | |
| |
| |
| The sounds of a vernacular | |
| |
| |
| The grammar of a vernacular | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Language and culture | |
| |
| |
| Culture | |
| |
| |
| Categories | |
| |
| |
| Linguistic relativity | |
| |
| |
| The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis | |
| |
| |
| Eskimos and snow | |
| |
| |
| Cognitive categories | |
| |
| |
| Classifiers | |
| |
| |
| Social categories | |
| |
| |
| Address terms | |
| |
| |
| Gender | |
| |
| |
| Gendered words | |
| |
| |
| Gendered speech | |
| |
| |
| Gendered interaction | |
| |
| |
| Study questions | |
| |
| |
| Research tasks | |
| |
| |
| Discussion topics/projects | |
| |
| |
| Further reading | |
| |
| |
| |
| Suggested answers to study questions | |
| |
| |
| Glossary | |
| |
| |
| References | |
| |
| |
| Index | |