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| Preface | |
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| An Introduction to Criminal Justice Inquiry | |
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| Criminal Justice and Scientific Inquiry | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Home Detention | |
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| What Is This Book About? | |
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| Two Realities | |
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| The Role of Science | |
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| Personal Human Inquiry | |
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| Tradition | |
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| Authority | |
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| Arrest and Domestic Violence | |
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| Errors in Personal Human Inquiry | |
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| Inaccurate Observation | |
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| Overgeneralization | |
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| Selective Observation | |
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| Illogical Reasoning | |
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| Ideology and Politics | |
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| To Err Is Human | |
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| Foundations of Social Science | |
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| Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief | |
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| Regularities | |
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| What about Exceptions? | |
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| Aggregates, Not Individuals | |
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| A Variable Language | |
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| Variables and Attributes | |
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| Variables and Relationships | |
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| Purposes of Research | |
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| Exploration | |
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| Description | |
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| Explanation | |
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| Application | |
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| Differing Avenues for Inquiry | |
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| Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanations | |
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| Inductive and Deductive Reasoning | |
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| Quantitative and Qualitative Data | |
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| Knowing through Experience: Summing Up and Looking Ahead | |
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| Main Points | |
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| Ethics and Criminal Justice Research | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Ethical Issues in Criminal Justice Research | |
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| No Harm to Participants | |
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| Ethics and Extreme Field Research | |
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| Voluntary Participation | |
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| Anonymity and Confidentiality | |
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| Deceiving Subjects | |
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| Analysis and Reporting | |
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| Legal Liability | |
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| Special Problems | |
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| Promoting Compliance with Ethical Principles | |
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| Codes of Professional Ethics | |
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| Institutional Review Boards | |
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| Institutional Review Board Requirements and Researcher Rights | |
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| Ethics and Juvenile Gang Members | |
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| Ethical Controversies | |
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| The Stanford Prison Experiment | |
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| Discussion Examples | |
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| Main Points | |
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| Structuring Criminal Justice Inquiry | |
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| General Issues in Research Design | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Causation in the Social Sciences | |
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| Criteria for Causality | |
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| Necessary and Sufficient Causes | |
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| Validity and Causal Inference | |
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| Statistical Conclusion Validity | |
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| Internal Validity | |
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| External Validity | |
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| Construct Validity | |
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| Validity and Causal Inference Summarized | |
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| Does Drug Use Cause Crime? | |
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| Causation and Declining Crime in New York City | |
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| Introducing Scientific Realism | |
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| Units of Analysis | |
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| Individuals | |
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| Groups | |
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| Organizations | |
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| Social Artifacts | |
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| The Ecological Fallacy | |
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| Units of Analysis in Review | |
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| Units of Analysis in the National Youth Gang Survey | |
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| The Time Dimension | |
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| Cross-Sectional Studies | |
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| Longitudinal Studies | |
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| Approximating Longitudinal Studies | |
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| The Time Dimension Summarized | |
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| How to Design a Research Project | |
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| The Research Process | |
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| Getting Started | |
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| Conceptualization | |
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| Choice of Research Method | |
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| Operationalization | |
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| Population and Sampling | |
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| Observations | |
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| Analysis | |
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| Application | |
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| Research Design in Review | |
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| The Research Proposal | |
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| Elements of a Research Proposal | |
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| Answers to the Units-of-Analysis Exercise | |
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| Main Points | |
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| Concepts, Operationalization, and Measurement | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Conceptions and Concepts | |
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| Conceptualization | |
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| Indicators and Dimensions | |
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| What Is Recidivism? | |
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| Creating Conceptual Order | |
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| Operationalization Choices | |
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| Measurement as Scoring | |
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| Jail Stay | |
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| Exhaustive and Exclusive Measurement | |
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| Levels of Measurement | |
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| Implications of Levels of Measurement | |
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| Criteria for Measurement Quality | |
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| Reliability | |
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| Validity | |
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| Measuring Crime | |
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| General Issues in Measuring Crime | |
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| Units of Analysis and Measuring Crime | |
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| Measures Based on Crimes Known to Police | |
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| Victim Surveys | |
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| Surveys of Offending | |
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| Measuring Crime Summary | |
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| Composite Measures | |
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| Typologies | |
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| An Index of Disorder | |
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| Measurement Summary | |
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| Main Points | |
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| Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Classical Experiment | |
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| Independent and Dependent Variables | |
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| Pretesting and Posttesting | |
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| Experimental and Control Groups | |
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| Double-Blind Experiments | |
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| Selecting Subjects | |
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| Randomization | |
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| Experiments and Causal Inference | |
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| Experiments and Threats to Validity | |
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| Threats to Internal Validity | |
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| Ruling Out Threats to Internal Validity | |
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| Generalizability and Threats to Validity | |
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| Variations in the Classical Experimental Design | |
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| Quasi-Experimental Designs | |
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| Nonequivalent-Groups Designs | |
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| Cohort Designs | |
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| Time-Series Designs | |
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| Variations in Time-Series Designs | |
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| Variable-Oriented Research and Scientific Realism | |
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| Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs Summarized | |
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| Main Points | |
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| Modes of Observation | |
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| Sampling | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Logic of Probability Sampling | |
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| Conscious and Unconscious Sampling Bias | |
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| Representativeness and Probability of Selection | |
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| Probability Theory and Sampling Distribution | |
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| The Sampling Distribution of 10 Cases | |
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| From Sampling Distribution to Parameter Estimate | |
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| Estimating Sampling Error | |
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| Confidence Levels and Confidence Intervals | |
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| Probability Theory and Sampling Distribution Summed Up | |
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| Populations and Sampling Frames | |
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| Types of Sampling Designs | |
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| Simple Random Sampling | |
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| Systematic Sampling | |
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| Stratified Sampling | |
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| Disproportionate Stratified Sampling | |
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| Multistage Cluster Sampling | |
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| Multistage Cluster Sampling with Stratification | |
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| Illustration: Two National Crime Surveys | |
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| The National Crime Victimization Survey | |
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| The British Crime Survey | |
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| Probability Sampling in Review | |
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| Nonprobability Sampling | |
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| Purposive Sampling | |
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| Quota Sampling | |
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| Reliance on Available Subjects | |
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| Snowball Sampling | |
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| Nonprobability Sampling in Review | |
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| Main Points | |
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| Survey Research and Other Ways of Asking Questions | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Topics Appropriate to Survey Research | |
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| Counting Crime | |
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| Self-Reports | |
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| Perception and Attitudes | |
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| Targeted Victim Surveys | |
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| Other Evaluation Uses | |
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| Guidelines for Asking Questions | |
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| Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions | |
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| Questions and Statements | |
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| Make Items Clear | |
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| Short Items Are Best | |
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| Avoid Negative Items | |
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| Biased Items and Terms | |
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| Designing Self-Report Items | |
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| Questionnaire Construction | |
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| General Questionnaire Format | |
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| Contingency Questions | |
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| Matrix Questions | |
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| Ordering Items in a Questionnaire | |
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| Don't Start from Scratch! | |
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| Self-Administered Questionnaires | |
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| Mail Distribution and Return | |
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| Warning Mailings and Cover Letters | |
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| Follow-Up Mailings | |
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| Acceptable Response Rates | |
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| Computer-Based Self-Administration | |
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| In-Person Interview Surveys | |
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| The Role of the Interviewer | |
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| Coordination and Control | |
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| Computer-Assisted In-Person Interviews | |
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| Telephone Surveys | |
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| Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing | |
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| Comparison of the Three Methods | |
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| Strengths and Weaknesses of Survey Research | |
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| Other Ways of Asking Questions | |
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| Specialized Interviewing | |
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| Focus Groups | |
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| Should You Do It Yourself? | |
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| Main Points | |
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| Field Research | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Topics Appropriate to Field Research | |
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| The Various Roles of the Observer | |
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| Asking Questions | |
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| Gaining Access to Subjects | |
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| Gaining Access to Formal Organizations | |
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| Gaining Access to Subcultures | |
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| Selecting Cases for Observation | |
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| Purposive Sampling in Field Research | |
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| Recording Observations | |
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| Cameras and Voice Recorders | |
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| Field Notes | |
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| Structured Observations | |
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| Linking Field Observations and Other Data | |
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| Illustrations of Field Research | |
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| Field Research on Speeding and Traffic Enforcement | |
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| Conducting a Safety Audit | |
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| Bars and Violence | |
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| Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Research | |
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| Validity | |
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| Reliability | |
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| Generalizability | |
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| Main Points | |
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| Agency Records, Content Analysis, and Secondary Data | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Topics Appropriate for Agency Records and Content Analysis | |
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| Types of Agency Records | |
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| Published Statistics | |
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| Nonpublic Agency Records | |
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| New Data Collected by Agency Staff | |
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| Improving Police Records of Domestic Violence | |
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| Reliability and Validity | |
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| Sources of Reliability and Validity Problems | |
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| How Many Parole Violators Were There Last Month? | |
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| Content Analysis | |
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| Coding in Content Analysis | |
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| Illustrations of Content Analysis | |
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| Secondary Analysis | |
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| Sources of Secondary Data | |
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| Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data | |
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| Main Points | |
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| Application and Analysis | |
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| Evaluation Research and Problem Analysis | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Topics Appropriate for Evaluation Research and Problem Analysis | |
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| The Policy Process | |
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| Linking the Process to Evaluation | |
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| Getting Started | |
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| Evaluability Assessment | |
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| Problem Formulation | |
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| Measurement | |
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| Designs for Program Evaluation | |
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| Randomized Evaluation Designs | |
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| Home Detention: Two Randomized Studies | |
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| Quasi-Experimental Designs | |
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| Other Types of Evaluation Studies | |
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| Problem Analysis and Scientific Realism | |
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| Problem-Oriented Policing | |
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| Auto Theft in Chula Vista | |
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| Other Applications of Problem Analysis | |
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| Space- and Time-Based Analysis | |
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| Scientific Realism and Applied Research | |
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| The Political Context of Applied Research | |
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| Evaluation and Stakeholders | |
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| When Politics Accommodates Facts | |
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| Politics and Objectivity | |
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| Main Points | |
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| Interpreting Data | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Univariate Description | |
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| Distributions | |
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| Measures of Central Tendency | |
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| Measures of Dispersion | |
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| Comparing Measures of Dispersion and Central Tendency | |
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| Computing Rates | |
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| Describing Two or More Variables | |
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| Bivariate Analysis | |
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| Murder on the Job | |
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| Multivariate Analysis | |
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| Inferential Statistics | |
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| Univariate Inferences | |
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| Tests of Statistical Significance | |
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| Visualizing Statistical Significance | |
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| Chi Square | |
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| Cautions in Interpreting Statistical Significance | |
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| Main Points | |
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| Glossary | |
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| References | |
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| Name Index | |
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| Subject Index | |