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| Preface | |
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| Ethical Principles, Reasoning, and Decision Making | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Designing Solutions to Ethical Dilemmas | |
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| Evolution of Ethical Principles | |
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| Virtue Ethics | |
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| Justice Ethics | |
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| Rules Ethics | |
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| Rights Ethics | |
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| Duty Ethics | |
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| Modern Duty Ethics and Ross's Prima Facie Duties | |
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| Utilitarianism | |
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| Analysis of Duty Ethics vs. Utilitarianism | |
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| Autonomy vs. Utilitarianism | |
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| Utilitarianism vs. Justice: Allocation of Limited Resources | |
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| Other Moral Theories | |
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| Cultural Relativism | |
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| Pragmatism | |
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| Pluralism | |
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| Subjectivism | |
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| Minimum Conception of Morality | |
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| Other Concepts and Ideologies | |
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| Principles That Guide Human Experimentation | |
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| Dangers of Expediency and the Slippery Slope Theory | |
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| Learning Values and Cheating in Life | |
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| Synopsis of Tools for Resolving Ethical Dilemmas | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Additional Reading | |
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| Problem Set | |
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| Ethics in Scientific Research | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Definition of Scientific Misconduct | |
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| Categories of Scientific Misconduct | |
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| Unethical Conduct by Researchers | |
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| Ethical Transgressions by Authors | |
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| Ethical Transgressions by Reviewers | |
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| Examples of Scientific Misconduct | |
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| Responsible Authorship | |
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| Guidelines for Authorship for Bioscience Journals | |
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| National Academy of Sciences Guidance on Responsible Authorship | |
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| Practical Guidelines for Assigning Authorship | |
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| Ranking of Authors | |
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| Stealing and Copyright | |
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| Plagiarism | |
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| Motives for Scientific Misconduct and Countermeasures | |
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| Discovery of Scientific Misconduct and Whistleblowing | |
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| Criteria for Whistleblowing | |
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| Consequences of Being Accused of Scientific Misconduct, and Protection When Accused of Scientific Misconduct | |
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| Whistleblower Protection Act (WPA) | |
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| Approaches to Scientific Misconduct: What Should Be Done? | |
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| Responsibilities of Individual Researchers | |
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| Responsibilities of Government, Universities, and Research Institutions | |
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| Conflict of Interest as a Category of Scientific Misconduct | |
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| Managing Conflicts of Interest | |
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| Conflicts between Goals of Commercialism and the Tenets of Academia | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Additional Reading | |
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| Appendix | |
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| Federal Policy on Research Misconduct | |
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| Problem Set | |
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| Information Technology Ethics | |
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| Introduction | |
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| The Benefits and Problems Generated by the Information Technologies | |
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| Benefits | |
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| Problems Associated with IT | |
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| Invasion of Privacy Due to Faulty Engineering of Computer Systems and Software Programs | |
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| Risks to Privacy by Outsourcing Private Information to Other Countries | |
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| Collection, Storage, Selling, and Unauthorized Use of Personal Information | |
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| Loss of Privacy by Monitoring | |
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| Ethics of Camera Surveillance in Public Places | |
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| Unauthorized Use of Intellectual Property (IP) | |
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| Hacking and Hoaxes | |
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| Plagiarism | |
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| Journalism on the Internet | |
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| Theft, Deception, and Fraud on the Internet | |
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| Censorship in Internet Communications | |
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| Spam | |
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| Availability of Information Technologies | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Additional Reading | |
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| Appendix | |
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| Committee for the Protection of Human Subjects: Security of Research Subjects' Personally Identifiable Data Held by Researchers (Excerpts from http://chps.berkeley.edu) | |
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| Problem Set | |
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| Business Ethics | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Historical Background | |
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| Design Strategy for Corporate Ethical Dilemmas | |
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| Corporate Practices Challenge Ethical Theories | |
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| Differences in Corporate Tactics | |
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| Credo vs. Vision Statement | |
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| Guidelines and Pitfalls of Corporate Strategies | |
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| Conflicts in Ethical Theories | |
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| Beneficence to the Community vs. Duty to the Stockholders | |
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| Utilitarianism vs. Justice | |
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| Duty vs. Justice and Virtue | |
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| Non-Malfeasance vs. Utilitarianism | |
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| Virtue vs. Duty | |
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| Corporate Responsibilities | |
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| Responsibilities to Employees | |
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| Ethnic, Religious, and Sexual Harassment Issues in the Workplace | |
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| Responsibilities to the Public | |
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| Responsibilities in Business with a Foreign Country | |
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| Responsibilities to the Ecosystem | |
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| The Ethics of the Professional Employee | |
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| Confidentiality | |
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| Confidentiality When Changing Jobs | |
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| Loyalty vs. Duty to Report Misdeeds | |
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| Whistleblower Responsibility of Corporate Employees | |
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| Obligations to Report Safety Violations or Threats to the Public | |
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| Conflicts of Interest | |
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| Federal Reaction to Corporate Fraud | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Additional Reading | |
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| Web Sites Helpful for Business Ethics Issues | |
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| Appendix | |
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| Some Strategic Rules from Sun Tzu (Michaelson 2001) | |
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| Problem Set | |
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| Environmental Ethics | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Current Energy Production and Use | |
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| Predicted Energy Needs for the Future | |
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| Transportation: the Greatest Consumer of Fossil Fuels | |
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| Energy Use by Communications Technologies | |
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| Alternative Energy Technologies | |
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| Fuel Cells | |
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| Nuclear Reactors | |
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| Nuclear Fusion as a Source of Energy | |
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| Wind Production of Energy | |
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| Hydroelectric Production and Storage of Energy | |
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| Solar Source of Electricity and Fuel | |
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| Moral, Spiritual, and Ideological Perspectives on the Environment | |
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| Using vs. Saving the Environment | |
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| The Dimensions of the Moral Community | |
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| Moral Theories and the Environment | |
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| Religious or Spiritual Approaches to the Environment | |
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| Ideological Approaches to the Environment | |
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| Anthropocentrism | |
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| Biocentrism | |
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| Ecocentrism | |
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| Deep Ecology | |
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| Ecofeminist Approach to the Environment | |
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| Modern Pantheist Approach | |
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| A Conceptual Structure for Environmental Ethics Based on Relative Value | |
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| The Global Environment | |
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| Responsibility for Technologies We Create | |
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| The Tragedy of the Commons | |
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| Where We Go from Here | |
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| Societal Efforts to Prevent Environment Degradation and Promote Sustainability | |
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| Summary of International Conferences to Protect and Sustain the Environment | |
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| The Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer, Vienna, Austria, 1985, and the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, Montreal, Canada, 1987 | |
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| U.N. Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 | |
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| U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto, Japan, 1997 | |
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| United Nations Millennium Summit, New York, New York, 2000 | |
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| United Nations World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, South Africa, 2002 | |
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| U.N. World Environment Conference of Mayors, San Francisco, California, June 2005 | |
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| The G8 Annual Conferences | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Additional Reading | |
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| Appendix | |
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| Physical Dimensions and Units | |
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| Problem Set | |
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| Ethics of Genetically Modified Organisms | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Processes Involved in Genetic Engineering of Plants and Animals | |
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| Genetic Modification of Plants without the Introduction of Foreign DNA | |
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| Stimulation of Mutations in Plants by Chemicals or Ionizing Radiation | |
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| Stimulation of Transposons to Induce Changes in the Plant Genome by Stress | |
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| In Situ Microsurgery to Stimulate Transposon-Induced Changes in Plants and Animals | |
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| Genetic Modification of Plants and Animals by Transfer of Foreign DNA | |
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| Genetic Modification by Microinjection of DNA into Cells | |
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| Genetic Modification by Gene Transfer Using Plasmids and Bacteria | |
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| Biolistic Impaction Method of Gene Transfer into Plants | |
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| Growth in the Use of GMO Products | |
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| Benefits and Risks of GMOs | |
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| Benefits | |
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| Risks of Genetically Modified Organisms | |
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| Concerns about Physical Escape of GMOs into the Wild | |
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| Concerns about the Biology of Horizontal Gene Transfer | |
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| Concerns about Biodiversity and Perturbations in Biologic Evolution | |
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| Concerns about Marker Genes and Other Modifications | |
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| Concerns about Genetically Modified Animals | |
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| Concerns about Who Will Benefit | |
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| Concerns about GMO Labeling | |
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| Cumulative Effect of Concerns about GMOs | |
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| Ongoing Efforts to Evaluate and Provide Information on GMOs | |
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| U. S. Government Oversight and Regulations | |
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| FDA's Biotechnology Policy | |
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| USDA/APHIS Regulation of Bioengineered Plants | |
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| Environmental Protection Agency Functions | |
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| Involvement of the U.S. Congress | |
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| The United States vs. the European Union Stance on GMOs | |
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| International Regulatory Approach to GMOs: U.N. Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety | |
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| Ethical Issues | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Additional Reading | |
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| Appendices | |
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| Estimating the Future Increases in World Population | |
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| Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: Risk Assessment | |
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| Problem Set | |
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| Medical Ethics | |
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| Background | |
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| General Medical Ethics | |
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| Codes of Professional Conduct | |
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| Patients' Rights to Information | |
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| Confidentiality | |
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| Responsibilities of the Physician Regarding Disclosure of Patient Information | |
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| Ownership of Medical Information | |
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| Refusal of Treatment | |
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| Ethics of Rendering Medical Aid | |
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| When Options for Continuing Care Conflict with a Physician's Ethics | |
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| Ethics of Medical Mistakes | |
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| Physician Conflicts of Interest | |
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| The Ethics of Futile Care | |
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| Use of Medical Marijuana | |
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| The Ethics of Dying | |
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| Who Decides on Life Support and Death? | |
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| Advance Health Care Directives | |
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| Arguments against Advance Health Care Directives | |
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| Sacrifice of One Life to Save Another | |
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| Physician-Assisted Suicide | |
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| Summary of the Ethics of Physician-Assisted Suicide | |
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| Resource Allocation and Organ Transplantation | |
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| Ways to Maximize the Availability of Scarce Resources | |
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| Ethical Considerations of Organ Transplantation | |
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| Use of Fetal Tissues | |
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| Transplantation Procedures for Prisoners | |
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| Buying and Selling of Body Tissues and Organs | |
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| Distribution of Care When Resources Are Limited | |
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| Treatment in Situations of Extreme Illness | |
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| Human Experimentation and Animal Experimentation | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Additional Reading | |
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| Appendices | |
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| California Advance Health Care Directive | |
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| (California Probate Code Section 4701) | |
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| Organ Transplantation Evaluation by Institute of Medicine | |
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| AMA Section E-2.03 Allocation of Limited Medical Resources | |
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| Problem Set | |
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| Ethics of Human and Animal Experimentation | |
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| Ethics of Human Experimentation | |
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| Background | |
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| Current Guidelines for Research on Human Beings | |
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| IRB Duties | |
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| IRB Composition | |
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| Guidelines for IRB Activities | |
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| Informed Consent Procedures | |
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| Variety of Human Experiments | |
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| Proposed Modifications of Regulations on Protection for Human Subjects Involved in Medical Research | |
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| Noted Examples of Human Experimentation | |
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| Summary of Human Experimentation | |
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| Ethics of Animal Experimentation | |
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| Cultural Attitudes toward Animals | |
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| Animal Malfeasance vs. Medical Benefits | |
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| Federal Regulations | |
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| Reduction in the Need for Animals | |
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| Mircoarray and Phage Array Technologies | |
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| Animal Imaging Technologies | |
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| Transgenic Animals | |
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| Summary of Issues in Animal Experimentation | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Additional Reading | |
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| Appendix | |
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| Office of Human Research Protection (OHRP) Informed Consent Checklist-Basic and Additional Elements of the Consent Form for Research Subjects | |
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| Problem Set | |
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| Ethics of Assisted Reproductive Technologies | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Types of ART | |
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| In Vitro Fertilization | |
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| Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) | |
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| Polar Body Analysis | |
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| Embryo Biopsy | |
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| Success Rates of ART | |
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| Risks of ART | |
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| Regulation of ART in the United States | |
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| Ethical Concerns about ART | |
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| The Ethics of IVF | |
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| Ethical Issues of PGD | |
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| Cloning | |
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| Reproductive Cloning | |
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| Reproductive and Therapeutic Cloning Differences | |
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| Experience with Reproductive Cloning in Animals | |
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| Ethical Issues Surrounding Reproductive and Therapeutic Cloning | |
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| Ethical Issues Surrounding Reproductive Cloning | |
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| Arguments for Reproductive Cloning | |
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| Arguments against Reproductive Cloning | |
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| Justice and Fairness in the Cloning Debate | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Additional Reading | |
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| Appendices | |
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| Appendix 9.1 | |
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| Appendix 9.2 | |
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| Problem Set | |
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| Ethics of Stem Cell Technologies | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Background | |
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| Types of Stem Cells and Their Origins | |
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| Embryonic Stem (ES) Cells | |
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| Alternative Sources of Embryonic Stem Cells | |
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| Embryonic Germ (EG) Cells | |
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| Adult Stem Cells | |
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| Hematopoietic Stem Cells | |
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| Cord-Blood Stem Cells | |
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| Current Status of Embryonic Stem Cell Research | |
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| Status of Adult Stem Cell Research | |
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| Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation | |
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| Neurogenesis | |
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| Myogenesis | |
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| Heart Muscle Regeneration | |
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| Liver Regeneration | |
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| Pancreas Regeneration | |
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| Lung Renewal | |
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| Summary of Technical Status of Adult Stem Cell Research | |
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| Ethical Issues in Embryonic Stem Cell Research and Therapy | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Additional Reading | |
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| Problem Set | |
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| Ethics of Enhancement Technologies | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis | |
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| Ethical Implications of PGD | |
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| Gene Therapy | |
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| Overview of Uses for Enhancement and Methodology | |
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| Somatic Gene Therapy | |
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| Gene Therapy for Severe Combined Immunodeficiency with Adenosine Deaminase Deficiency (ADA-SCID) | |
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| Children Undergoing Gene Therapy for X-Linked SCID | |
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| History of Gene Therapy | |
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| Gene Therapy for Parkinson's Disease | |
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| Gene Therapy for Hemophilia | |
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| Somatic Gene Therapy for Human Enhancement | |
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| Gene Therapy to Enhance Muscle Strength | |
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| In Utero Somatic Gene Therapy | |
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| Regulation of Somatic Gene Therapy | |
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| Current Status and Future Plans for Human Gene Therapy | |
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| Ethical Issues of Somatic Gene Therapy for Enhancement | |
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| Germline Gene Therapy | |
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| Methodology of Proposed Germline Gene Therapy | |
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| Ethical Issues of Germline Gene Therapy | |
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| Arguments for Germline Gene Therapy | |
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| Arguments against Germline Gene Therapy | |
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| Oversight for Germline Engineering | |
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| Enhancement by Drugs or Other Means | |
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| Drug Use to Enhance Performance in Sport | |
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| Background | |
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| History of Drug Use in Modern Sport | |
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| Substances Used to Enhance Performance (Doping) | |
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| Caffeine | |
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| Ephedrine, Phenylephrine, Epinephrine, and Ephedra and other Alpha-Adrenergic Drugs | |
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| Amphetamines and Methylphenidate (Ritalin) | |
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| Growth Hormone | |
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| Diuretics | |
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| Erythropoietin (EPO) | |
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| Tetrahydrogestrinone (THG) | |
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| Creatine and Androstenidione | |
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| Reasons Athletes Use Drugs | |
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| Prevalence of Doping | |
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| Enhancement of Behavior through Drugs | |
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| Body Enhancement by Surgery | |
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| Ethics of Behavioral and Physical Enhancements | |
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| Ethical Duties of the Medical Practitioner | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Additional Reading | |
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| Appendix 11.1 | |
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| Problem Set | |
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| Ethics of Emerging Technologies | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Risk Analysis and Cost-Benefit Analysis | |
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| Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) | |
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| Nanotechnology | |
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| Synthetic Biology | |
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| Ethics of Emerging Threats of Terrorism | |
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| Neuroenhancements and Neuroengineering | |
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| Deep Brain Stimulation | |
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| Brain-Computer Interfacing | |
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| Regenerative and Rehabilitative Neurology | |
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| Brain Imaging | |
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| Psychopharmacology | |
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| Ethics of Human Space Exploration | |
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| Ethics in Colonization of the Moon and Mars | |
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| The Role of Government in Evaluating the Risks of New Technologies | |
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| Chapter Summary | |
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| References | |
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| Additional Reading | |
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| Problem Set | |
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| Glossary | |
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| Index | |