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| Preface | |
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| Introduction | |
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| Two Perennial Questions | |
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| What Causes Behavior? | |
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| Why Does Behavior Vary in Its Intensity? | |
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| Subject Matter | |
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| Internal Motives | |
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| External Events | |
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| Expressions of Motivation | |
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| Behavior | |
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| Physiology | |
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| Self?Report | |
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| Themes in the Study of Motivation | |
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| Motivation Benefits Adaptation | |
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| Motives Direct Attention | |
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| Motives Vary Over Time and Influence the Stream of Behavior | |
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| Types of Motivation Exist | |
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| Motivation Includes Both Approach and Avoidance Tendencies | |
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| Motivation Study Reveals What People Want | |
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| To Flourish, Motivation Needs Supportive Conditions | |
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| There Is Nothing So Practical As a Good Theory | |
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| Putting It All Together: | |
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| A Framework to Understand the Study of Motivation | |
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| Summary | |
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| Motivation in Historical and Contemporary Perspective | |
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| Philosophical Origins of Motivational Concepts | |
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| Will: The First Grand Theory | |
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| Instinct: The Second Grand Theory | |
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| Drive: The Third Grand Theory | |
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| Freud's Drive Theory | |
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| Hull's Drive Theory | |
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| Decline of Drive Theory | |
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| Post?Drive Theory Years | |
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| Rise of the Mini?Theories | |
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| Active Nature of the Person | |
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| Cognitive Revolution | |
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| Applied, Socially Relevant Research | |
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| Contemporary Mini-Theories Era | |
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| The 1990s Return of Motivation Study | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Summary | |
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| Readings for Further Study | |
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| The Motivated and Emotional Brain | |
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| The Motivated and Emotional Brain | |
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| Three Principles.Specific brain structures generate specific motivational and emotional states. | |
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| 2. Biochemical agents stimulate brain structures | |
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| 3. Day-to-day events stir biochemical agents into action | |
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| Looking Inside the Brain | |
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| Brain-Generated Approach vs. Avoidance | |
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| Hypothalamus | |
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| Medial Forebrain Bundle | |
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| Amygdala | |
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| Septo-Hippocampal Circuit | |
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| Reticular Formation | |
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| Prefrontal Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex | |
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| Neurotransmitter Pathways in the Brain | |
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| Dopamine | |
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| Dopamine Release and the Anticipation of Reward | |
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| Biology of Reward | |
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| Dopamine and Motivated Action | |
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| The World in Which the Brain Lives | |
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| Motivation Cannot Be Separated from the Social Context in which It Is Embedded | |
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| We Are Not Always Consciously Aware of the Motivational Basis of our Behavior | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Summary | |
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| Readings for Further Study | |
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| Needs. | |
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| Physiological Needs | |
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| Need | |
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| Fundamentals of Regulation | |
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| Physiological Need | |
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| Psychological Drive | |
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| Homeostasis | |
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| Negative Feedback | |
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| Multiple Inputs/Multiple Outputs | |
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| Intra?Organismic Mechanisms | |
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| Extra?Organismic Mechanisms | |
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| Thirst | |
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| Physiological Regulation | |
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| Thirst activation | |
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| Third satiety | |
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| Hypothalamus and liver | |
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| Environmental Influences | |
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| Hunger | |
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| Short-Term Appetite | |
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| Long-Term Energy Balance | |
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| Environmental Influences | |
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| Restraint-release Situations | |
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| Cognitively-regulated eating style | |
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| Weight gain and obesity | |
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| Sex | |
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| Physiological Regulation | |
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| Facial Metrics | |
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| Sexual Scripts | |
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| Sexual Orientation | |
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| Evolutionary Basis of Sexual Motivation | |
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| Failures to Self?Regulate Physiological Needs | |
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| Summary | |
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| Readings for Further Study. | |
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| Psychological Needs | |
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| Psychological Needs | |
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| Need Structure | |
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| Organismic Approach to Motivation | |
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| Person-environment dialectic | |
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| Organismic psychological needs | |
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| Autonomy | |
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| Supporting Autonomy | |
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| Nurtures inner motivational resources | |
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| Relies on informational language | |
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| Promotes valuing | |
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| Acknowledges and accepts negative affect | |
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| Moment-to-Moment Autonomy Support | |
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| Benefits of an Autonomy?Supportive Motivating Style | |
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| Two Illustrations | |
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| Competence | |
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| Involving Competence | |
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| Optimal challenge and flow | |
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| Interdependency between challenge and feedback | |
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| Failure tolerance | |
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| Structure | |
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| Supporting Competence | |
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| Positive feedback | |
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| Pleasure of optimal challenge and positive feedback | |
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| Relatedness | |
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| Involving Relatedness: Interaction With Others | |
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| Satisfying Relatedness: Perception of a Social Bond | |
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| Communal and exchange relationships | |
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| Internalization | |
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| Putting It All Together: Social Contexts That Involve and Satisfy | |
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| Psychological Needs | |
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| Engagement | |
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| What Makes for a Good Day? | |
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| Vitality | |
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| Summary | |
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| Readings for Further Study | |
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| Intrinsic Motivation and Types of Extrinsic Motivation | |
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| Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations | |
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| Intrinsic Motivation | |
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| Extrinsic Motivation | |
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| Types of Extrinsic Motivation | |
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| Incentives and Consequences | |
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| Incentives | |
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| What Is a Reinforcer? | |
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| Consequences | |
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| Positive reinforcers | |
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| Negative reinforcers | |
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| Punishers | |
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| Does punishment work? | |
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| Hidden Costs of Reward | |
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| Expected and Tangible Rewards | |
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| Implications | |
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| Benefits of Incentives and Rewards | |
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| Cognitive Evaluation Theory | |
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| Two Examples of Controlling and Informational Events | |
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| Praise | |
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| Competition | |
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| Self?Determination Theory | |
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| Types of Extrinsic Motivation | |
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| External regulation | |
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| Introjected regulation | |
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| Identified regulation | |
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| Integrated regulation | |
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| Benefits of Facilitating Intrinsic Motivation | |
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| Persistence | |
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| Creativity | |
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| Conceptual understanding/High quality learning | |
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| Optimal functioning and well-being | |
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| Putting It All Together: Motivating Others on Uninteresting Activities | |
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| Summary | |
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| Readings for Further Study | |
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| Social Needs | |
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| Acquired Needs | |
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| Quasi?Needs | |
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| Social Needs | |
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| How Social Needs Motivate Behavior | |
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| Achievement | |
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| Origins of the Need for Achievement | |
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| Socialization influences | |
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| Cognitive influences | |
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| Developmental influences | |
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| Atkinson's Model | |
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| Tendency to approach success | |
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| Tendency to avoid failure | |
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| Combined approach and avoidance tendencies | |
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| Achievement for the future | |
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| Dynamics?of?Action Model | |
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| Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Achievement | |
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| Moderately difficult tasks | |
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| Competition | |
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| Entrepreneurship | |
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| Achievement Goals | |
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| Integrating Classical and Contemporary Approaches to | |
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| Achievement Motivation | |
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| Avoidance Motivation and Well-Being | |
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| Implicit Theories | |
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| Different implicit theories mean differentachievementgoals | |
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| Meaning of effort | |
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| Affiliation and Intimacy | |
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| Conditions That Involve the Affiliation and Intimacy Needs | |
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| Fear and anxiety | |
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| Development of interpersonal relationships | |
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| Maintaining interpersonal networks | |
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| Satisfying the affiliation and intimacy needs | |
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| Power | |
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| Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Power | |
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| Leadership and relationships | |
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| Aggressiveness | |
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| Influential occupations | |
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| Prestige possessions | |
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| Leadership Motive Pattern | |
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| Effectiveness of U.S. presidents | |
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| Summary | |
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| Readings for Further Study | |
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| Cognitions | |
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| Goals | |
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| Cognitive Perspective on Motivation | |
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| Plans | |
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| Corrective Motivation | |
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| Discrepancy | |
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| Two Types of Discrepancy | |
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| Goals | |
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| Performance | |
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| Goal difficulty | |
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| Goal specificity | |
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| Difficult, Specific Goals Enhance Performance | |
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| Feedback | |
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| Goal Acceptance | |
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| Criticisms | |
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| Long-Term Goal Setting | |
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| Personal Strivings | |
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| Personal growth and subjective well-being | |
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| Implementation Intentions | |
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| Mental Simulations: Focusing on Action | |
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| Formulating Implementation Intentions | |
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| Goal Pursuit: Getting Started | |
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| Goal Pursuit: Persisting and Finishing | |
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| Self-Regulation | |
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| Developing More Competent Self-Regulation. | |
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| Summary | |
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| Readings for Further Study | |
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| Personal Control Beliefs | |
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| Motivation to Exercise Personal Control | |
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| Two Kinds of Expectancy | |
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| Self-Efficacy | |
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| Sources of Self-Efficacy | |
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| Personal behavior history | |
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| Vicarious experience | |
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| Verbal persuasion | |
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| Physiological state | |
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| Self-Efficacy Effects on Behavior | |
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| Choice: Selection of activities and environments | |
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| Effort and persistence | |
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| Thinking and decision-making | |
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| Emotionality | |
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| Empowerment | |
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| Empowering People: Mastery Modeling Program | |
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| Personal Control Beliefs | |
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| Mastery Versus Helpless Motivational Orientations. | |
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| Learned Helplessness | |
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| Learning Helplessness | |
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| Application to Humans | |
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| Components | |
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| Contingency | |
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| Cognition | |
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| Behavior | |
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| Effects of Helplessness | |
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| Motivational deficits | |
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| Learning deficits | |
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| Emotional deficits | |
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| Helplessness and Depression | |
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| Explanatory Style | |
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| Pessimistic explanatory style | |
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| Optimistic explanatory style | |
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| Criticisms and Alternative Explanations | |
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| Reactance Theory | |
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| Reactance and Helplessness | |
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| Putting It All Together: Hope | |
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| Summary | |
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| Readings for Further Study | |
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| Chapter 10.The Self and Its Strivings | |
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| The Self | |
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| The Problem with Self-Esteem | |
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| Self-Concept | |
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| Self-Schemas | |
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| Motivational Properties of Self-Schemas | |
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| Consistent Self | |
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| Possible Selves | |
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| Cognitive Dissonance | |
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| Dissonance-Arousing Situations | |
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| Choice | |
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| Insufficient justification | |
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| Effort justification | |
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| New information | |
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| Motivational Processes Underlying Cognitive Dissonance | |
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| Self-Perception Theory | |
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| Identity | |
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| Roles | |
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| Affect Control Theory | |
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| Energy and Direction | |
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| Identity-confirming behaviors | |
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| Identity-restoring behaviors | |
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| Why People Self-Verify | |
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| Agency | |
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| Self as Action and Development from Within | |
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| Differentiation and integration | |
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| Internalization and the integrating self | |
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| Self-Concordance | |
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| Summary | |
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| Readings for Further Study | |
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| Emotions | |
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| Nature of Emotion: Five Perennial Questions | |
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| What Is an Emotion? | |
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| Relationship Between Emotion and Motivation | |
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| Emotion as motivation | |
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| Emotion as a readout system | |
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| What Causes an Emotion? | |
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| Biology and Cognition | |
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| Biological perspective | |
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| Cognitive perspective | |
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| Two-Systems View | |
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| Chicken-and-Egg Problem | |
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| Comprehensive Biology-Cognition Model | |
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| How Many Emotions Are There? | |
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| Biological Perspective | |
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| Cognitive Perspective | |
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| Reconciliation of the Numbers Issue | |
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| Basic Emotions | |
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| Fear | |
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| Anger | |
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| Disgust | |
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| Sadness | |
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| Threat and harm | |
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| Joy | |
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| Interest | |
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| Motive involvement and satisfaction. | |
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| What Good Are the Emotions? | |
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| Coping Functions | |
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| Social Functions | |
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| Why We Have Emotions | |
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| What Is the Difference between Emotion and Mood? | |
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| Everyday Mood | |
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| Positive Affect | |
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| Conditions that make us feel good | |
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| Benefits of feeling good | |
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| Summary. | |
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| Readings for Further Study | |
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| Aspects of Emotion | |
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| Biological Aspects of Emotion | |
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| James-Lange Theory | |
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| Contemporary Perspective | |
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| Specific neural circuits | |
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| Neural activation | |
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| Differential Emotions Theory | |
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| Facial Feedback Hypothesis | |
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| Facial musculature | |
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| Test of the facial feedback hypothesis | |
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| Are facial expressions of emotion universal across cultures? | |
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| Can we voluntarily control our emotions? | |
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| Cognitive Aspects of Emotion | |
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| Appraisal | |
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| From perception to appraisal | |
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| From appraisal to emotion. | |
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| From felt emotion to action | |
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| Complex Appraisal | |
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| Primary appraisal | |
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| Secondary appraisal | |
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| Appraisal model of emotion | |
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| Motivation | |
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| Appraisal Process | |
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| Emotion differentiation | |
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| Emotion Knowledge | |
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| Attributions | |
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| Social and Cultural Aspects of Emotion | |
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| Social Interaction | |
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| Emotional Socialization | |
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| Managing Emotions | |
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| Inferring Identities from Emotional Displays. | |
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| Summary | |
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| Readings for Further Study | |
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| Individual Differences | |
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| Personality Characteristics | |
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| Happiness | |
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| Extraversion and Happiness | |
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| Neuroticism and Suffering | |
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| Extraverts Are Generally Happy, Neurotics Are Generally Unhappy | |
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| Arousal | |
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| Performance and Emotion | |
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| Insufficient Stimulation and Underarousal | |
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| Excessive Stimulation and Overarousal | |
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| Credibility of the Inverted-U Hypothesis | |
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| Sensation Seeking | |
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| Search for new experiences | |
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| Risk taking | |
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| Biological basis | |
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| Affect Intensity. | |
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| Control | |
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| Perceived Control | |
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| Self-Confirming Cycles of High and Low Engagement = Desire for Control | |
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| Establishing control | |
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| Losing control. | |
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| Summary. | |
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| Readings for Further Study | |
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| Unconscious Motivation | |
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| Psychoanalytic Perspective | |
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| Psychoanalytic Becomes Psychodynamic | |
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| Dual-Instinct Theory | |
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| Drive or Wish? | |
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| Contemporary Psychodynamic Theory | |
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| The Unconscious | |
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| Freudian Unconscious | |
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| Non-Freudian Unconscious. | |
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| Psychodynamics | |
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| Repression | |
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| Suppression | |
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| Do the Id and Ego Actually Exist? | |
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| Ego Psychology | |
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| Ego Development | |
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| Ego Defense | |
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| Ego Effectance. | |
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| Object Relations Theory | |
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| Criticisms. | |
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| Summary. | |
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| Readings for Further Study | |
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| Growth Motivation and Positive Psychology | |
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| Holism and Positive Psychology | |
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| Holism | |
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| Positive Psychology | |
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| Self-Actualization | |
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| Hierarchy of Human Needs | |
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| Deficiency needs | |
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| Growth needs | |
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| Research on the need hierarchy | |
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| Encouraging Growth | |
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| Actualizing Tendency | |
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| Emergence of the Self | |
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| Conditions of Worth | |
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| Congruence | |
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| Fully Functioning Individual | |
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| Causality Orientations | |
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| Growth-Seeking Versus Validation-Seeking | |
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| How Relationships Support the Actualizing Tendency | |
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| Helping Others | |
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| Freedom to Learn | |
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| Self-Definition and Social Definition | |
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| The Problem of Evil | |
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| Positive Psychology and Mental Health | |
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| Optimism | |
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| Meaning | |
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| Criticisms | |
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| Summary | |
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| Readings for Further Study | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Conclusion | |
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| Understanding and Applying Motivation | |
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| Explaining Motivation: Why We Do What We Do | |
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| Predicting Motivation: Identifying Antecedents | |
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| Applying Motivation: Solving Problems | |
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| Motivating Self and Others | |
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| Motivating Self | |
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| Motivating Others | |
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| Feedback on How the Effort to Motivate Self and Others Is Going | |
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| Designing Motivational Interventions | |
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| Four Case Studies | |
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| Four Success Stories | |
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| Attaining personal goals | |
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| Motivating students | |
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| Suppressing hunger, reversing obesity | |
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| Autonomy-supportive parenting | |
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| References | |
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| Name Index | |
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| Subject Index | |
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| Credits | |